Chapter 1

Types and Components of Computer Systems

Hardware
• Hardware are the physical components which make up the computer system.
• Each item of hardware has their specific roles in a computer system.
• Hardware components can either be internal or external.
Internal Hardware Devices:

• Central processing unit (CPU)/ Processor

- The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer.
- It is the device that carries out calculations to complete software instructions.
• Motherboard
- The motherboard is circuit board which is connects to main components of the
computer system.
• Random access memory (RAM)
- Any data or instructions that are to be processed by the CPU must be placed into main
memory
• Read-only memory (ROM)
- ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of non-volatile memory that stores permanent
data or instructions that cannot be changed (or can only be changed with difficulty)
- Used to store firmware or boot-up instructions (like the BIOS).
• Sound Card
- A sound card is a device that attaches to the motherboard to enable the computer to
input, process, and deliver sound
• Internal storage devices (hard disk drive and solid-state drive)
- A hard disk drive is a hardware device that's used to store information like software and
files.
- The capacity of hard drive ranges from GB to Tera Bytes.
• Graphics card
- A graphics card is a device that attaches to the motherboard to enable the computer to
process and display graphics.
• Network interface card (NIC)
- A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows a computer or
device to connect to a network, such as a local area network (LAN) or the internet.
Boot-Up Process:

1. Power is turned on.

2. ROM runs boot-up instructions.

3. BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) /UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) looks
for the operating system.

4. OS is loaded into RAM.

5. Computer is ready to use.

External Hardware Devices:

• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Printer
• External Storage Devices
Software
• Software is a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a computer.
• These instructions tell the computer what to do.
• Programs that control computer systems
• Set of instructions that make computer do something
• Software is not a physical thing
• For a computer system to be useful, it has to consist of both hardware and software.
• Two types of software: application software and system software
Application software:

• Programs that allow the user to do specific task

• Design to carry out tasks
• Can be general purpose software or custom-made software (specialist software)
• E.g. Spread sheets, databases, word processing
System Software:

• Programs that allow the hardware to run properly

• Control computer's hardware and application program
• Communicate with user
• E.g. Operating system, device drivers, compilers
Describe the difference between Hardware and Software

• Hardware are the physical components which make up the computer system.
• Software is a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a computer.
• These instructions tell the computer what to do.

Describe the difference between Application and System Software

• Application software is designed to allow users to complete specific tasks.

• For example, a WordProcessor is used to write a letter.
• System software is used to manage and maintain the computer system.
• An operating system such as Windows 10 is used to manage the functions of the computer
system

Analogue and digital data

 • Computers can only understand data in the form of binary digits (0,1); this is commonly
known as digital data.
• However, data in the real world is analogue, not limited to two specific values.
• So, for a computer to process real-world data, it first needs to convert the received data into
digital form.
• This is done by hardware known as ADC (analogue to digital converter), and its output is
given back in analogue form using DAC (digital to analogue converter).

ADC converter

DAC converter

Main components of computer systems

• A computer system consisting of input devices, output devices and secondary storage.

The internal hardware devices consist of four key components:

• the central processing unit (CPU) (contained on the motherboard)

• internal hard disk drive or solid-state drive
 • random access memory (RAM)
• read-only memory (ROM)

Central processing unit (CPU)

• The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer.
• The component of the computer that understands and executes hardware and software
operations.
• Nowadays, it’s also known as a microprocessor.
• It is a single integrated circuit at the core of most PCs and is also present in many household
gadgets and equipment where some control or monitoring is required.
• It consists of a control unit (CU) that manages the input and output devices, an arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) that performs computations and makes logical judgments, and tiny
memory regions known as registers.
• It processes the input and produces the outcome of the processing in the form of output.
• The speed of the CPU is measured in Gigahertz (GHz).
• A 1 GHz CPU can carry out 1 billion (1 × 109) instructions per second!
Internal memory (RAM and ROM)
1. Random access memory (RAM):

• RAM stands for Random Access Memory

• RAM is the part of the computer that temporarily stores the instructions that the computer
is running whilst the data is being processed by the CPU
• RAM is volatile which means that when the computer is turned off, all data is lost.
• temporary memory storage
• performs read and write functions
• is used to store data that are currently in use
• can be increased in size to improve operational speed
2. Read-only memory (ROM):

• ROM stands for Read Only Memory

• ROM is a built-in memory that cannot be changed (Read Only).
• ROM normally holds the ‘bootup’ instructions to start the computer–without it the
computer wouldn’t know what to do when on button is switched on (e.g. the operating
system will not start).
• ROM is non-volatile memory which means that memory is not lost when computer is
turned off.
• permanent memory storage
• can only be read from
• used to store computer’s configuration data, such as BIOS
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The BIOS is the first software that runs when a
computer is powered on.

Differentiating between Internal memories:

1. RAM is a temporary memory device, whereas ROM is a permanent one.

2. RAM is volatile, ROM is non-volatile.

3. RAM can be written to and from, but ROM can only be read from.

4. RAM is used to store data, files, programs, and parts of OS that are currently in use. However,
ROM is used in storing start-up data.
Input and output devices
Input device

• An input device is any hardware that enables data entry.

• An input device can only send data.
• Input devices are necessary for a computer to receive commands from the user for
processing to be permitted.

Output device

• An output shows the result or solution of the input after it has been processed.
• An output device can only receive data.
• Output devices are needed in order to display the outcome of the processing that took place
to the user.
• An output device displays the computer's output in a human-readable format
• Output devices are simpler as they only need to display the finale.

Backing storage
• Required to store significant amounts of data permanently.

• Most commonly in the form of Hard disk drives and Solid-state drives.

• Used to permanently store large amounts of data (non-volatile).

• Examples: Internal HDD, SSD, external drives, Blu-ray discs, USB drives.

• Not directly addressable by the CPU – data must be moved to RAM first.
• Access time is slower than RAM/ROM.

• Cheaper per byte and has larger capacity than RAM/ROM.

• Can be fixed (internal) or removable (used for backup and portability).
Internal Memory vs Backing Storage (Comparison)

Internal Memory
Feature Backing Storage
(RAM/ROM)

RAM is volatile; ROM is read- Non-volatile (data retained when power is

Volatility
only off)

Capacity Smaller Much larger

Access Speed Very fast Slower

Cost per Byte Expensive Cheaper

Addressable by
Yes (directly) No (data must be moved to RAM)
CPU

Location Fixed (inside computer) Fixed or removable

Difference between internal memory and backing storage

1. RAM contents are lost when power is lost, ROM is read-only, and backing storage is permanent
even without power.
2. RAM and ROM are much smaller than backing storage.

3. RAM and ROM are significantly faster in accessing data than backing storage.

4. Backing storage is much cheaper than internal memory.

5. Internal memories are fixed, and backing storage can be fixed or portable.

6. Internal memories can be directly read by the CPU, while backing storage needs to be moved
into the RAM before being read by the CPU.

Operating systems
• Controls operation of input, output & backing storage
• Supervises loading, running & storage of application programs.
• Deals with errors in application programs.
• Maintains security of the whole computer system
• Maintains a computer log.
• Operating systems offer various types of user interfaces
User interfaces

• Operating systems offer various types of user interface.

• Four different types:
1) command line interface (CLI)
2) graphical user interface (GUI)
3) dialogue-based user interface
4) gesture-based user interface.

Command line interface (CLI)

• A user interface where the user types text commands to interact with the computer.

• Used to open software, navigate files, or execute tasks by entering commands.

• Example:

o In Windows CLI (Command Prompt):

o start desktop – opens the desktop folder in Windows Explorer.

o mkdir - Creates a new folder.

Advantages:

• Direct communication with the computer.

• Flexible – not limited to pre-set menu options.

• Efficient for expert users who know the commands.

Disadvantages:
• Requires memorizing commands.

• Slower for beginners due to typing.

• Not user-friendly – difficult for non-technical users.

Graphical user interface (GUI)

• A user interface that uses icons, pictures, and menus to interact with the system instead of
typing commands.

• Based on WIMP – Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointing device (like a mouse).

• Modern Use: Also includes touchscreen gestures (e.g., pinch (zoom), rotate) on
smartphones and tablets.
• Example: Clicking the Desktop icon in Windows runs commands without typing.
Advantages:

• User-friendly – no command typing needed.

• Easy to navigate using icons and mouse.

• Ideal for beginners or general users.

• Good help facilities provided with GUIs

• Do not have to learn complicated commands

Disadvantages:

• Uses more memory than CLI.

• Larger amount of hard disk space than other interfaces

• Users are limited to available icons and options.

• GUI use more processing power than other types of interfaces

• GUI can be slow for experienced programmers to use, they find CLI much faster
Who uses GUI?

• General users/end-users who want to run apps, play games, or manage files with minimal
technical knowledge.

Dialogue-based user interface

• Interfaces that allow users to interact using voice commands.

• The system recognizes human speech and responds or performs actions.

• Examples of use:

o Cars: Control entertainment or navigation (e.g., "Drive me to the nearest airport").

o Homes: Control lights, appliances, etc., via voice.

o Devices: Personal assistants like Amazon Alexa, Google Assistant, Apple Siri,
Microsoft Cortana.

Advantages:

• no need for a driver to take their hands off the steering wheel
• in a home, very useful for people with disabilities, because many tasks can be carried out
by the spoken word only
• possible to use as a security feature, because voice recognition could be used to identify a
person
Disadvantages

• still unreliable, with many commands not being recognised or needing to be repeated
several times (especially if there is background noise)
• can be quite complex to set up
• user needs to know which commands can be used
Gesture-based user interface

• Interfaces that recognize human gestures (e.g., hand, head, or foot movements) to control
a system.
• Uses computer vision and image processing via cameras or sensors.
• Examples:
o Rotate finger to adjust volume.

o Thumb and finger gesture to change music track.

o Hand near window switch to open a window.

Advantages:

• replaces mechanical input devices

• no physical contact required
• very natural interface for a human operator
• no training needed to interface with the computer
Disadvantages:

• possible for unintentional movement to be picked up

• only works fairly near to the camera or sensor (maximum of 1.5 metres)
• may only accept a limited number of movements (for example, it may take several attempts
to find out exactly what finger movements are recognised)

Types of computers – desktop computers and mobile computers

(laptop, smartphone, tablet and phablet)
Desktop computers

• Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer that is made up of a separate monitor,

keyboard, mouse, and processor unit.
• It is distinguished from, for example, a laptop computer by the fact that it is made up of
several separate components, which makes it not very portable.
Uses:
1. office and business work

2. educational use

3. general entertainment

4. gaming device
Advantages:

1. They are easier and less costly to upgrade and expand.

2. Spare parts are standardized, which makes them cheaper.

3. They tend to have better specifications for a given price.

4. No critical power consumption because they plug into a wall socket.

5. Due to fixed positions, they are less likely to be damaged or stolen.

6. As they usually have wired connections, they have more stable internet access.

Disadvantages:
1. They are not particularly portable because they are made up of separate components.

2. More complicated because all the components need to be hooked up by wiring, which also
clutters up the desk space.

3. Because they aren’t portable, files must be copied to another

Laptop computer

• It refers to a type of computer where the monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor
are all together in one unit.
• This makes them extremely portable. lightweight (to aid portability).
• Low power consumption (and also long battery life).
• Low heat output (cooling is very important).
Uses:

1. office and business work

2. educational use

3. used as a gaming device.

4. general entertainment
Advantages:
1. Portability: all components are in a single unit, so they can be taken anywhere.

2. Because of one single unit, there are no trailing wires and desk clutter.

3. take up much less room on a desk, so they can be easily used in public spaces.

4. portability allows them to take full advantage of Wi-Fi features.

Disadvantages:

1. portability makes it easier for them to be stolen.

2. limited battery life means the user needs to carry a charger at all times.

3. keyboards and pointing devices may be awkward to use.

4. not easy to upgrade, like adding more RAM.

Smartphone

• Allow normal phone calls to be made, but also have an operating system (such as iOS,
Android, or Windows), allowing them to run a number of computer applications (known
as apps or applets).
• Smartphones communicate with the internet either by using Wi-Fi hot spots or by using
3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.

Uses:

1. They allow users to send/receive emails.

2. They allow users to use a number of apps.

3. They allow users to use a camera feature (to take photos or videos).

4. They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music and videos).

Advantages:

1. very small in size and lightweight, makes them portable.

2. connecting to the internet while on the move.

3. because they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks, they can be used almost anywhere.
4. they have apps which can tell instant location, which is a feature that isn’t available in either
desktops or laptops.
5. they have reasonable battery life.
Disadvantages:

1. small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read.

2. more difficult and slower when typing things in.

3. Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery.

4. Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to laptops and desktops.

5. Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating systems.
6. Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a smartphone or for it to be stolen compared
to laptops or desktops.

7. The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than with Wi-Fi.
Tablet

• They work similarly to a smartphone.

• The only main difference is that they are somewhat bigger in size as compared to a
smartphone.

Uses:

1. They allow users to send/receive emails.

2. They allow users to use a number of apps.

3. They allow users to use a camera feature (to take photos or videos).

4. They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music and videos).

Advantages of Tablets compared to Laptops:

1. very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to load up).

2. fully portable – they are so lightweight that they can be carried anywhere.

3. touch screen technology means they are simple to use and don’t need any other input devices.
4. not much heat, they use solid-state technology.
5. The battery life of a tablet is a lot longer.

6. when the power button is pressed, it goes into standby but remains connected to the internet so
the user still hears alerts when emails or other ‘events’ are received.
Disadvantages of Tablets compared to Laptops:

1. tend to be rather expensive when compared to laptops.

2. they often have limited memory/storage when compared to a laptop.

3. typing on a touch screen can be slow and error prone compared to a standard keyboard.
4. laptops tend to support more file formats than tablets.

Phablet

• Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a hybrid between a tablet and a
smartphone, referred to as a phablet.
• They have much larger screens than a smartphone but are smaller than a tablet.
Uses:

• Entertainment (streaming of music, videos, and television programs).

• Gaming (including group games).
• As a camera or video camera.
• Internet use (online sales, social networks, using QR codes, and so on).
• Sending/receiving emails.
• Global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to a location).
• Calendar functions.
• Telephone banking (sending and receiving money using banking apps).
• Voice over Internet Protocol: telephone network using the internet, which also allows video
calling.
• Instant access to social networks (social contact with friends no matter where you are in
the world).
• Instant messaging.
• Office and business management (allows rapid voice and video communication).
• Education use (using interactive software to teach or learn from).
• Remotely control devices.

Emerging technologies – artificial intelligence (AI) and extended

reality (virtual and augmented)
• This is technology that is being newly developed
• These can have several impacts on our society
Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Technology that focuses on creating a computer system that can closely mimic or simulate
human intelligence
• AI can be used to:
o Enhance video games and computer tactics
o Help decision making steps in expert systems

o Make robots to imitate human behaviour

 o Understand different human languages

• Impact on everyday life:

o Can be used to accurately predict hazardous weather conditions and signal warnings
automatically

o Take over menial tasks for humans; increasing our leisure time

o Can be used for safer automated travel; cars that can drive and park by themselves

o Increases home safety by being able to tell the difference between owner & intruder; call
authorities automatically

o Improved medical care as decision making skills and precision can be enhanced

Negative Impacts of AI

• Job Losses: Automation may replace workers in manufacturing, driving, and other
industries.
• Over-Dependency: People might become too reliant on AI systems, losing ability to
perform tasks manually.
• Loss of Human Skills: Traditional skills may disappear as machines take over tasks
previously done by humans.

Extended Reality (XR)

• A collective term for technologies that blend real and virtual worlds.

• Main Types:
o AR (Augmented Reality)

o VR (Virtual Reality)
o MR (Mixed Reality)

Augmented Reality (AR)

• Blends digital and real environments – adds digital content to the real world.

• Displayed through: Smartphones, tablets, or AR goggles.

• User stays aware of real world while interacting with virtual elements.

• Examples: Pokémon GO, virtual makeup trials, interactive rescue simulations.

Applications:
• Safety & Rescue – virtual planning of missions
 • Entertainment – characters interact in real surroundings

• Retail – virtual product previews

• Healthcare – 3D imaging from CT scans

Virtual Reality (VR)

• Fully immersive digital experience – replaces the real world entirely.

• Requires a VR headset or head-mounted display.

• 360° virtual environment – brain perceives it as real.

Applications:

• Military – tank or flight simulations

• Education – virtual historical tours

• Healthcare – surgical training, diagnosis

• Entertainment – immersive gaming

• Fashion – virtual fashion shows

• Heritage – explore monuments

• Business – staff training

• Engineering – visualizing designs

• Sport – improve performance

• Media – interactive films

• Science – visualizing molecules or cells