Introduction to Electrical Engineering

MODULE 3(a)
D.C. GENERATORS
Introduction
• An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical form or from
electrical to mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical energy conversion.
• An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy is called an electric
generator.
• An electrical machine which converts electrical energy into a mechanical energy is called an electric
motor

• The D.C. Machines are thus classified as,

o D.C. Generator
o D.C. motor

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Constructional details of a D.C. Machine

It consists of the following parts

Yoke

A. Functions
a) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating materials get
protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases, acidic fumes etc.
b) It provides mechanical support to the poles.
c) It forms the part of the magnetic circuit. It provides the path for low reluctance for magnetic flux. The
low reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and
hence the power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux.

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B. Choice of material: It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest and provides low reluctance
path. For large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability i.e.
low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.

Poles

• Each pole is divided into two parts namely

o Pole core
o Pole shoe
• The figure shows the pole

a) Functions of pole core and pole shoes

(1) Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
(2) It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
(3) Pole shoes enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to
produce larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this, pole shoes has been given a particular shape.

b) Choice of material: it is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As it requires a
definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations of required size and shape
are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.

Field Winding

• The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.

a) Functions
1) The field winding carries current and behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
2) As it helps in producing magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called field
winding or exciting winding.

b) Choice of material: It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting material. So
aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about
pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.

Armature

• The armature is further divided into two parts

o Armature core

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o Armature winding

1. Armature core: Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
a. Functions
i. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
ii. To provide path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

b. Choice of material

i. As it has to provide low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of magnetic material like
cast iron or cast steel.
ii. It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as possible.

2. Armature winding: is nothing but the interconnection of armature conductors, placed in the slots
provided on the armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux
gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f gets induced in them.
a. Function
i. Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
ii. To carry the current supplied in case of D.C. motors.
iii. To do the useful work in the external circuit.

b. Choice of material: As armature winding carries entire current which depends on external load, it
has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper.

Commutator

• The basic nature of e.m.f induced in the armature conductor is alternating.

• This needs rectification in case of D.C. generator, which is possible by a device called commutator.

1) Functions
a) To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductor.
b) To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f to unidirectional e.m.f.
c) To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.

2) Choice of material:
a) As it collects current from the armature, it is also made up of copper segments.
b) It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped segments of hard drawn high conductivity
copper. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
c) Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of copper strip.

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Brushes and Brush gear

• Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator.

1) Function: To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external circuit.
2) Choice of material: To avoid wear and tear of commutator brushes are normally made up of soft material
like carbon.

Types of Armature Winding

• A number of armature conductors are connected in a specific manner to give armature winding.
• According to the way of connecting the conductors, the armature winding has two types,
o Lap winding
o Wave winding

• In lap type, the connections overlap each other as the winding proceeds.
• Due to this, the number of parallel path in which the conductors are divided is P, where P= number of
poles in the machines
o A=P = Number of parallel paths
• Large number of parallel path indicate high current capacity of machine hence lap winding is preferred
for high current rating generators.

• In wave winding, the winding travels ahead avoiding the overlap in a progressive fashion.
• Due to this, the armature conductors always get divided into two parallel paths, irrespective of number
of poles.
o A=2= number of parallel paths

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Comparison between lap and wave type armature winding

S.no Lap Winding Wave Winding
1. Number of parallel paths (A)= Poles (P) Number of parallel paths (A) = 2
4. Number of brush set required is equal to Number of brush sets required is always equal to two
number of poles
3. Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for high voltage, low current capacity
capacity generators generators
4. Normally used for generators of capacity Normally used for generators of capacity less than
more than 500A 500A

Winding terminology
a) Conductor: It is the actual armature conductor which is under the influence of the magnetic field,
placed in the armature slot.
b) Turn: The two conductors placed in different slots when connected together form a turn.

Z = 2 x Number of turns

c) Coil: For simplicity of connections, the turns are grouped together to form a coil. If coil contains only
one turn it is called single turn coil while coil with more than one turn is called multi turn coil.

d) Pole pitch: The distance between the two adjacent poles is called a pole pitch. It is measured in terms
of number of slots. Thus total slots along the periphery of the armature divided by total number of poles
is called a pole pitch.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC GENERATOR

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E.M.F Equation of D.C. Generator
Let P = Number of poles of the generator
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber N
= Speed of armature in r.p.m
Z = Total number of armature conductor
A = Number of parallel path in which the Z number of conductors are divided

So A=P for lap type of winding and A=2 for wave type of winding

E.M.F gets induced in the conductor according to Faraday`s law of electromagnetic induction. Hence the
average value of e.m.f induced in each armature conductor is
E = rate of cutting of flux = dφ
dt
Consider one revolution of conductor. In one revolution, conductor will cut total flux produced by all the poles
i.e. φ x P.
While time required to complete one revolution is 60/N sec as speed in N r.p.m

φP φPN
 E= 60 =
60
𝙽

Now the conductors in one parallel path are always in series. There are total Z conductors
with A parallel path, hence Z/A number of conductors are always in series and e.m.f remains
same across all the parallel paths

 Total e.m.f can be expressed as E = 𝛗𝐏𝐍𝐙

𝟔𝟎𝐀
This is nothing but e.m.f equation of a D.C. generator

𝛗𝐏𝐍𝐙
E= with A= P for lap and A=2 for wave
𝟔𝟎𝐀

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Types of D.C. Generators

• The field winding is also called exciting winding and current carried by the field winding is called an
exciting current.
• Thus supplying current to the field winding is called excitation and the way of supplying the exciting
current is called method of excitation.
• Depending on the method of excitation used, the D.C. Generators are classified as,

Separately Excited Generator

• When field winding is supplied from external, separate d.c. supply i.e. excitation of field winding is
separate then the generator is called separately excited generator.
• The schematic representation is shown in fig below

• In the terminology of d.c. machines the various currents are denoted as

Ia = Armature Current IL = Load Current If = field Current

• The field winding is excited separately, so the field current depends on supply voltage and resistance
of the field winding.
• For armature side, it is supplying a load, demanding a load current of IL at a voltage of Vt which is
called terminal voltage.

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Now Ia = IL
• The internally induced e.m.f E is supplying the voltage to the load hence terminal voltage Vt is a part
of E.
• But E is not equal to Vt while supplying a load. This is because when armature current Ia flows through
armature winding, due to armature winding resistance Ra , there is a voltage drop across the armature
winding equal to IaRa volts. The induced e.m.f has to supply this drop, along with the terminal voltage
Vt. To keep IaRa drop to minimum the resistance Ra is designed to be very small.
• In addition to this drop, there is some voltage drop at the contacts of the brush called brush contact
drop. But this drop is negligible and hence generally neglected.
• When armature carries current. It produces its own flux which distorts the main flux. Due to this, there
is small voltage drop called armature reaction drop. But as small, this drop is also partially neglected.
• So the voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as,

E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚

φPNZ
Where E= = generated e.m.f
60A

• The power developed by armature is given by the product of induced e.m.f E and
armature current 𝐈𝐚 , Power developed in armature = E 𝐈𝐚

• While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭 𝐈L

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Self Excited Generator

• When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself then it is said to be self
excited generator.
• Based on how field winding is connected to the armature to derive its excitation, this type is further
divided into the following three types
o Shunt generator
o Series generator
o Compound generator

Shunt generator

• When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the combination across the
load then the generator is called shunt generator.

• From the fig

𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡

• Now the voltage across the load is 𝐕𝐭 , which is same across field winding as both are in parallel with
each other.
𝐕𝐭
𝐈𝐬𝐡 =
Rsh

• While induced e.m.f E still requires to supply voltage drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚

E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
• Armature reaction drop is practically neglected.
• The power developed by armature is given by the product of induced e.m.f E and armature current 𝐈𝐚

Power developed in armature = E𝐈𝐚

• While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭 𝐈𝐋

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Series Generator

• When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding while supplying the load
then the generator is called series generator.

• As all armature, field and load are in series they carry the same current

 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋

• Now in addition to drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 , induced e.m.f has to supply voltage drop across series field winding
too. This is 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 . so voltage equation can be written as

E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞

• The power developed by armature is given by the product of induced e.m.f E and armature current 𝐈𝐚

Power developed in armature = E𝐈𝐚

• While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭𝐈𝐋

Compound Generator
• In this type, the part of the field winding is connected in parallel with armature and part in series with
armature.
• Depending on the connection of shunt and series field winding, compound generators are further
classified as
o Long shunt compound generators
o Short shunt compound generators.

Long shunt compound generators

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• In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the entire series combination of armature and
series field winding.

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• From the fig 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞

𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡

• Voltage across the shunt field winding is 𝐕𝐭

𝐕𝐭
𝐈𝐬𝐡 =
Rsh

• Voltage equation is E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞

Short Shunt Compound Generator

• In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the armature, excluding series field
winding.

• From the fig

𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡

And 𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋
𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
• the drop across shunt field winding is drop across the armature only and not the total 𝐕𝐭
• so the drop across the shunt field winding is E- 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚

E− 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑𝐬𝐡

• now the voltage equation is E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞

Now
𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋

Hence E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞

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• i.e. E −𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚= 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞

𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞
 𝐈 𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑𝐬𝐡

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Application of various type of D.C.Generator
1. Separately Excited Generator
• As a separate supply is required to excite field, the use is restricted to some special
applications like electro-plating, electro-refining of materials.
2. Shunt Generators
• Commonly used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purpose.
3. Series Generator
• Commonly used as boosters on d.c. feeders, as a constant current generator for welding
generators and arc lamps.
4. Cumulatively compound generators
• These are used for domestic lighting purpose and to transmit energy over long distance.
5. Differential Compound generator
• These are used for special application like electric arc welding.

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MODULE 3(b)
D.C. MOTOR
Principle of operation of a D.C. machine as a motor

• The principle of operation of a D.C. motor can be stated in a single statement as ‘when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force’.

• The magnitude of force experienced by conductor in a motor is given by

F = B l I Newtons
B= flux density due to the flux produced by field winding

l= active length of the conductor

I= magnitude of current passing through the conductor

• The direction of such force i.e. direction of rotation of motor can be determined by Flemings left
hand rule.
• In a practical d.c.motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductor and hence armature conductors experience
a force.
• Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in fig

Consider a D.C. motor having two poles north and south represented by N and S as shown in fig. There
will be conductors placed uniformly in the slots of the armature. For the sake of explaining the a

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principle of working of a D.C. motor, only two conductors a and b, which are placed under the influence
of N-pole and S-pole respectively and which are connected together by an end connection at the back
side of the armature of the armature and to the commutator segments at front side of the armature are
considered
When a D.C. supply is given to the motor terminals, the current flows through the conductors a and b
via the.. In conductor a, the +ve sign marked indicates that the current is flowing inwards and the -ve
sign in conductor b indicates that the current is flowing outwards. The direction of the magnetic field
is represented by the lines of magnetic force, which from the north pole N and go into the south pole S
as shown in the fig.

According to Fleming's left hand rule, the conductor a experiences a force F in the downward
direction and the conductor b, experiences an equal force F in the upward direction. As the two
conductors are connected together, the two equal and opposite forces F acting on them, constitute a
couple, tending to rotate the armature in anti-clockwise direction. Due to the action of this couple, let
the armature rotate by 90° in the anti- clockwise direction and the conductors a and b occupy positions
a' and b' respectively.
In this position, they experience a force F in opposite directions along the same line and hence the
torque experienced by them is zero. This position is known as "dead center" for the conductors a and b.
If the armature contains only these two conductors, then the armature would stop in the position a'b'.
But the armature consists of several other conductors which are uniformly distributed in the slots of the
armature, which are connected together and experiencing a torque in the anti-clockwise direction. Thus
the armature continues to rotate in the anti-clockwise direction.

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Back E.M.F in a D.C.Motor

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Significance of back emf

• Due to the presence of back e.m.f the d.c.motor becomes a regulating machine. i.e. motor adjusts itself
to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand.
• The basic principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, 𝐄𝐛 α N.

• When the load is suddenly put on the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the motor reduces
due to which back e.m.f also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature 𝐕 − 𝐄𝐛 increases and
motor draws more armature current.

• Due to the increased armature current, force experienced by the conductor and hence the torque on the
armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy increased load demand.

• When the load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back e.m.f
increases. This causes 𝐕 − 𝐄𝐛 to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by the armature.
The motor speeds stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to produce the less torque
required by the new load.

• So back e.m.f regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the armature current to
meet the load requirement

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Torque Equation of a d.c. Motor

• The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque.

• Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons

• The wheel is rotating at a speed of N rpm then its angular speed is

𝟐𝛑𝐍
𝛚= rad/sec
𝟔𝟎

• so work done in one revolution is

W= F x distance travelled in one revolution = F x 2 π R

work done F x 2π R
P = Power developed = = = (F x R) x 2πN
time 60/N 60

 P = T x ω watts
• Let 𝑇𝑎 be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature torque.
• The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is 𝐄𝐛𝐈𝐚 .
• So if the speed of the motor is N rpm, then

Power in armature = Armature torque x ω

2πN
EbIa = Ta x
60

φPNZ
But Eb =
60A

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• The mechanical power developed in the armature is transmitted to the load through the shaft of the
motor.
• It is impossible to transmit the entire power developed by the armature to the load. This is because
while transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss due to the friction, windage and
the iron loss.
• The torque required to overcome these losses is called lost torque, denoted as TL. These losses are
also called stray losses.
• The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque or shaft
torque denoted as Tsh

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Types of D.C.Motors

D.C. Shunt Motor

• In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply.

• Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding and Ra be the resistance of armature winding.
• The value of Ra is very small while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more number
of turns.

Voltage and current relationship

• The voltage across the armature and field winding is same equal to supply voltage V.

• The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current IL. 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡

The back emf induced in the armature is given by

V = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + BCD +ARD

BCD is brush contact drop

ARD is armature reaction drop

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• Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it. i.e. Ish

Φ α 𝐈𝐬𝐡
• As long as supply voltage is constant, the flux produced is constant. Hence D.C. shunt motor is
called constant flux motor.

D.C.Series Motor

• In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the supply.
• Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding and the value of Rse is very small.

Voltage and Current Relationship

• Let I𝐿 be the total current drawn from the supply.

So, 𝐈𝑳 = 𝐈𝒔𝒆 = 𝐈𝒂

The back emf induced in the armature is given by

V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + BCD +ARD

V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚(𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐬𝐞) + BCD +ARD

• Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to Eb and drop
across armature winding.
• In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So flux produced
is proportional to armature current.

Φ α 𝐈𝐬𝐞α 𝐈𝐚 for series motor

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D.C. Compound Motor

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