Electric Machines I

EEC 123

THE CONSTRUCTION, PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND

APPLICATION OF DC MACHINE

Construction of DC Motor
A DC motor is a device that converts direct current electrical energy to mechanical energy. A DC motor or
machine consists of two windings namely field winding and armature winding. The field winding is
stationary and the armature winding can rotate. The field winding produces a magnetic flux in the air gap
between the armature and field windings and the armature is placed in this magnetic field. The construction
of DC motor or machine is shown in the following Figure.

Figure 1: Construction of D.C. Motor

A DC motor is constructed with:

 A Stator
 A Rotor
 A Yoke
 Poles
 Field windings
 Armature windings
 Commutator
 Brushes
Stator
A stator is the static part of the DC machine that houses the field windings and receives the supply.

Rotor
A rotor is the rotating part of the DC machine that brings about the mechanical rotations and contains the
armature winding.

All these parts put together make up the total construction of a DC motor.

DC Motor Parts

Yoke
The yoke acts as the outer cover of a DC motor and it is also known as the frame. The magnetic frame or the
yoke of DC motor made up of cast iron or steel and forms an integral part of the stator or the static part of
the motor. Yoke serves two purposes, firstly it provides mechanical protection to the outer parts of the
machine secondly it provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
Poles

The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner wall of the yoke with screws. The
construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts. Namely, the pole core and the pole shoe.
The pole and pole shoe are fixed on the yoke by bolts. These are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron
laminations that are riveted together. Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is excited.
A Pole shoe is an extended part of a pole. Due to its shape, the pole area is enlarged and more flux can pass
through the air gap to the armature.

Field Winding

The coils around the poles are known as field (or exciting) coils and are connected in series to form the field
winding. Copper wire is used for the construction of field coils. When the DC is passed through the field
windings, it magnetizes poles that produce magnetic flux.

The connection of the field winding and the armature winding is done according to the type of the motor and
decides the characteristics of the motor. Below is the figure showing field winding.

Armature Core

It is a cylindrical drum and keyed to the rotating shaft. A large number of slots are made all over its
periphery, which accommodates the armature winding. The laminated construction is used to produce the
armature core to minimize the eddy current losses. The air holes are also provided on the armature core for
the air circulation which helps in cooling the motor.
Armature Winding
The armature winding plays a very important role in the construction of a DC motor because the conversion
of power takes place in the armature winding. Based on connections, there are two types of armature
windings named:
 Wave Winding
 Lap Winding

Lap Winding
In lap winding, the consecutive coils overlap each other. The first end of the winding is connected to the one
segment of the commutator, and the starting end of the other coil is placed under the same magnet (different
pole) and joins with the same segment of the commutator.
 The conductors are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths equals to the number of poles.
Consider the machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P parallel paths, and each
path will have Z/P conductors in series. The number of brushes is equivalent to the number of parallel paths.
The half of the brush is positive, and the remaining is negative.

The lap winding is mainly classified into two types. They are the Simplex lap winding and the Duplex Lap
winding.

1. Simplex Lap Winding – In this winding, the number of parallel paths is equal to the number of
poles.

2. Duplex Lap Winding – In duplex lap winding the number of parallel paths is twice to the number of
poles.

Definition of Wave Winding

The one end of the coil is connected to the starting end of the other coil which has the same polarity as that
of the first coil. The coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is called the wave winding. The
conductor of the wave winding is split into two parallel paths, and each path had Z/2 conductors in series.
The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e., the number of parallel paths.

Differences between Lap and Wave Winding

1. In lap winding, the coil is lap back to the succeeding coil whereas in the case of the wave winding the coil
is connected in the wave shape.
2. In lap winding, the end of the armature coil is connected to the adjacent commutator segment, whereas is
wave winding the end of the armature coil is placed in the commutator segment which is placed apart.
3. In lap winding the number of parallel paths is equal to the total number of poles of the coil and in the wave
winding the number of parallel paths is always equal to two.
4. The lap winding is also called parallel winding because their coils are connected in parallel whereas in the
wave winding the coils are connected in series and hence it is called series winding.
5. The emf of the lap winding is less as compared to wave winding.
6. The lap winding requires equaliser for the better commutation. The wave winding requires the dummy coil
for giving the mechanical balance to the armature.
7. In lap winding, the number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths whereas in wave winding
the number of brushes is two.
8. The efficiency of the lap winding is less as compared to the wave winding.
9. The simplex and duplex are the types of lap windings. In simplex winding, the number of parallel paths is
equal to the pole, in duplex winding the pole is twice to that of a parallel path, whereas the progressive and
the retrogressive are the types of the wave windings.
10. The winding cost of the lap winding is more than the wave winding because it requires more conductor.
11. The lap winding is used in low voltage, high current machines, whereas the wave winding is used in high
voltage, low current machines.

Commutator
It is mounted on the shaft. It is made up of a large number of wedge-shaped segments of hard drawn copper,
insulated from each other by a thin layer of mica.
The commutator connects the rotating armature conductor to the stationary external circuit through carbon
brushes. It converts alternating torque into unidirectional torque produced in the armature.

Commutator

Carbon Brushes
The current is conducted from the voltage source to the armature by the carbon brushes which are held
against the surface of the commutator by springs. They are made of high-grade carbon steel and are
rectangular.

Carbon Brushes

EMF Equation of a DC machine

In d.c machine the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in the coils. This generated voltage is called d.c.
machine emf. In case of a generator, the emf of rotation is called the generated e.m.f. i.e Er = Eg . Also in
case of a motor, the emf of rotation is known as back e.m.f. or counter e.m.f. i.e Er = Eb. The expression is
the same for both condition of operation.
The derivative of e.m.f equation for DC machine has two parts
1. Induction emf of one conductor
2. Induction emf of the generator

Induction emf of one conductor

For one revolution of the conductor,
Let Φ = flux produces per pole in Wb (webers)
P = total number of poles
z = total number of conductors in the armature
N = Speed of rotation of armature in revolution per second
Therefore, the flux cut by one conductor in one revolution or total flus produces by all the poles,
dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),
Also, time to cmplete one revolution,
dt = 60/N (Seconds)

Now, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the average emf generated per conductor is
given by:
 E = dΦ/dt
∴ E = PΦN/60 (Volts) ………………………………………………………………1
Equation one above is the total flux per time taken. Note emf is measured in volts.

Induction emf of the generator

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a manner that all
parallel paths are always in series.
Here,
Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths
Z/A = number of armature conductor connected in series for each parallel path

We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line, therefore, induced emf of DC generator

E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

i.e E = PΦN/60 x Z/A = ΦZPN/A60 (Volts)……………………………………………..2

Since wave wound generator has only two parallel paths, (i.e. A = 2) we therefore have

E = ΦZPN/120 (Volts)…………………………….…………………………………..3

For lap wound generator, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one path (i.e. P = A)
therefore,
E = ΦZPN/A60 (Volts)…………………………..……………………………………4

For a given machine, the number of armature conductor connected in series for each parallel path, Z/A is
constant,
Therefore, E = KΦN/60……………………………………………………………………..5
Where K = PZ/A
Or E ∝ Φn
That is E = KΦn …………………………………………………………………………..6
Where n is the number of revolution made per second, n = N/60
Or E ∝ Φ𝜔
That is E = KΦ𝜔…………………………………………………………………………..7
Where 𝜔 is the angular velocity in radian per second, 𝜔 = 2𝜋N/60 = 2𝜋n
From the above equations, it has been made clear that the induce emf, E is directly proportional to the flux
per pole Φ in line with the faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

Example 1
A dynamo has a rated armature current of 250A. What is the current per path of the armature if the armature
winding is simplex wave wound or simplex lap wound? The machine has 12 poles.
Sol.
Rated armature current, Ia = 250A
Number of poles, P = 12
With simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths, A = 2
∴ Current per path, Ic = Ia/A
= 250/2
= 125A
With simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths, A = P =12
∴ Current per path, Ic = Ia/A
= 250/12
= 20.83A

Example 2
A 4-pole lap connected dc machine has an armature resistance of 0.15Ω. Find the armature resistance of the
machine when rewound for wave connection.
Sol.
For lap wound, number of parallel path, A = P = 4
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.15Ω
Resistance of each path = Armature resistance x Number of paths
= 0.15 x 4
= 0.6Ω
∴ Ra = Resistance of each path/Number of paths
For wave wound, number of parallel paths, A’ = 2
Resistance of each path = Resistance of each path when lap connected x A/A’
= 0.6 x 4/2
= 1.2Ω
But Ra = Resistance of each path/Number of paths
= 1.2/2
= 0.6Ω
Example 3
A d.c generator has an armature emf of 100V when the useful flux per pole is 20mWb, and the speed is
800rpm. Calculate the generated emf (i) with the same flux and a speed of 1000rpm, (ii) with a flux per pole
of 24mWb and a speed of 900rpm.
Solution
E1 = 100V
Φ1 = 20mWb = 20 x 10-3Wb
N1 = 800rpm
N2 = 1000rpm
Φ3 =

Example 4
Calculate the voltage induced in the armature winding of a four pole, lap wound dc machine having 728
active conductors and running at 1800rpm. The flux per pole is 30mWb.

Exercises
1. Calculate the voltage ionduced in the armature wingding of a 4-pole wave wound, dc machine
having 728 conductors and running at 1800rpm. The flux per pole is 35mWb.
2. A four pole lap wound armature has 144 slots with two coil sides per slot, each coil having two turns.
If the flux per pole is 20mWb and the armature rotates at 720rpm, what is the induced voltage?

Factors affecting the induced emf

1. Pitch Factor or Coil Pitch: The ratio of phasor (vector) sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic
sum of induced emfs per coil is known as pitch factor (Kp)) which is always less than unity.

2. Distribution Factor: The ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in a
number of slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced (or to the resultant of emfs induced
in all coils concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as breadth factor (Kb) or distribution factor
(Kd). The distribution factor is always less than unity.
3. Harmonic Effect: The flux distribution along the air gaps of alternators usually is non- sinusoidal so that
the emf in the individual armature conductor likewise is non-sinusoidal.
The sources of harmonics in the output voltage waveform are the non- sinusoidal waveform of the field flux.
4. Winding Factor: Both distribution factor (Kd) and pitch factor Kp together is known as winding factor
Kw.

Voltage Equation of a DC Motor

Input Voltage provided to the motor armature performs the following two tasks:
  Controls the induced Back E.M.F “Eb” of the Motor.
 Provides supply to the Ohmic IaRa drop.
i.e.
V = Eb + IaRa
Where
 Eb = Back E.M.F
 IaRa = Armature Current X Armature Resistance
The above relation is known as “Voltage Equation of the DC Motor”.

Armature Reaction in a DC Generator

Definition: The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature field on the main field. In other
words, the armature reaction represents the impact of the armature flux on the main field flux. The armature
field is produced by the armature conductors when current flows through them. And the main field is
produced by the magnetic poles.
The armature flux causes two effects on the main field flux.
 The armature reaction distorted the main field flux.
 It reduces the magnitude of the main field flux.

The figure above shows the two poles dc generator. When no load connected to the generator, the armature
current becomes zero. In this condition, only the MMF of the main poles exists in the generator. The MMF
flux is uniformly distributed along the magnetic axis. The magnetic axis means the centre line between the
north and south pole. The arrow in the below-given image shows the direction of the magnetic flux ΦM. The
magnetic neutral axis or plane is perpendicular to the axis of the magnetic flux.
The MNA coincides with the geometrical neutral axis (GNA). The brushes of the DC machines are always
placed in this axis, and hence this axis is called the axis of commutation.

Consider the condition in which only the armature conductors carrying current and no current flows through
their main poles. The direction of the current remains the same in all the conductors lying under one pole.
The direction of current induces in the conductor is given by the Fleming right-hand rule. And the direction
of flux generates in the conductors is given by the corkscrew rule.
The direction of current on the left sides of the armature conductor goes into the paper (represented by the
cross inside the circle). The armature conductors combine their MMF for generating the fluxes through the
armature in the downward direction.
Similarly, the right-hand side conductors carry current, and their direction goes out of the paper (shown by
dots inside the circle). The conductor on the right-hand sides is also combining their MMF for producing the
flux in the downwards direction. Hence, the conductor on both sides combines their MMF in such a way so
that their flux goes downward direction. The flux induces in the armature conductor Φ A is given by the
arrow shown above.
The figure below shows the condition in which the field current and the armature current are simultaneously
acting on the conductor.
This happens when machines running at no-load condition. Now the machine has two fluxes, i.e., the
armature flux and the field pole flux. The armature flux is produced by the current induced in the armature
conductors while the field pole flux is induced because of the main field poles. These two flux combines and
gives the resultant flux ΦR as shown in the figure above.
When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The distortion increases the density of
the flux in the upper pole tip of the N-pole and the lower pole tip of the south pole. Similarly, the density of
flux decreases in the lower pole tip of the north pole and the upper pole tip of the south pole.
The resultant flux induces in the generator are shifted towards the direction of the rotation of the generator.
The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant flux. The MNA is
continuously shifted with the resultant flux.
Effect of Armature Reaction
The effects of Armature Reaction are as follows:-
 Because of the armature reaction the flux density over one-half of the pole increases and over the
other half decreases. The total flux produces by each pole is slightly less due to which the magnitude
of the terminal voltage reduces. The effect due to which the armature reaction reduces the total flux
is known as the demagnetizing effect.
 The resultant flux is distorted. The direction of the magnetic neutral axis is shifted with the direction
of resultant flux in the case of the generator, and it is opposite to the direction of the resultant flux in
the case of the motor.
 The armature reaction induces flux in the neutral zone, and this flux generates the voltage that causes
the commutation problem.
The MNA axis is the axis in which the value of induced EMF becomes zero. And the GNA divides the
armature core into two equal parts.

Calculation of Voltage Drop

Voltage drop is the known phenomenon where the voltage at the end of a run of cable is lower than at the
start. Any length or size of cable will have a resistance, and running a current through this resistance will
cause the voltage to drop. As the length of the cable increases, its resistance increases in proportion; so
voltage drop is particularly a problem with long cables runs, for example in larger buildings or on larger
properties such as farms.
To minimize the voltage drop in a circuit, you need to increase the size (cross section) of your conductors –
this lowers the overall resistance of the cable. Of course, larger cable sizes increase cost, so it’s important to
calculate voltage drop and find the optimum conductor size that will reduce voltage drop to safe levels while
remaining cost-effective
To accurately calculate the voltage drop for a given cable size, length, and current, you need to accurately
know the resistance of the type of cable you are using. However, AS3000 outlines a simplified method that
can be used.

AS3000 Table C7

Cable conductor Single Phase (230V) Am Three phase (400V)Am

size per %Vd per %Vd

1 mm2 45 90

1.5 mm2 70 140

2.5 mm2 128 256

4 mm2 205 412

6 mm2 306 615

10 mm2 515 1034

16 mm2 818 1643

25 mm2 1289 2588

35 mm2 1773 3560

50 mm2 2377 4772

70 mm2 3342 6712

95 mm2 4445 8927

Let’s see two most common methods for calculation of voltage drop
1. Approximate method
Voltage drop EVD = IRcosθ + IXsinθ
2i. Exact method
If sending end voltage and load PF are known.
where:
 EVD – Voltage drop, line-to-neutral, volts
 Es – Source voltage, line-to-neutral, volts
 I – Line (Load) current, amperes
 R – Circuit (branch, feeder) resistance, ohms
 X – Circuit (branch, feeder) reactance, ohms
 cosθ – Power factor of load, decimal
 sinθ – Reactive factor of load, decimal

If the receiving end voltage, load current and power factor (PF) are known.

ER is the receiving end voltage.

2ii. Exact Method

If receiving or sending mVA and its power factor are known at a known sending or receiving voltage.

where:
 ER – Receiving line-line voltage in kV
 ES – Sending line-line voltage in kV
 MVAR – Receiving three-phase mVA
 MVAS – Sending three-phase mVA
 Z – Impedance between and receiving ends
  γ – The angle of impedance Z
 R – Receiving end PF
 S – Sending end PF, positive when lagging

Example 1
A 460V, 100hp motor, running at 80% PF, draws 124A full-load current. It is fed by three 2/0 copper
conductors in steel conduit. The feeder length is 150ft (46m). a. What is the voltage drop in the feeder? b.
What is the percentage voltage drop?

124A × 150ft (46m) = 18,600 A-ft

Divided by 100 = 186
Table: 2/0 copper, magnetic conduit,
80% PF = 0.0187
186 x 0.0187 = 3.48 V drop
3.48/460 x 100 = 0.76% drop
Conclusion: 0.76% voltage drop is very acceptable.

Example 2
A three-phase, four-wire lighting feeder on a 208 V circuit is 250 ft (76.2 m) long. The load is 175 A
at 90% PF. It is desired to use aluminum 7 conductors in aluminum conduit.

What size conductor is required to limit the voltage drop to 2% phase-to-phase?

VD = 2/100 × 208 = 4.16 V

4.16 / (175 × 250) = 0.0000951

0.0000951 × 100= 0.00951

In table, under aluminum conductors, nonmagnetic conduit, 90% PF, the nearest lower value is 0.0091.
Conductor required is 12 500 kcmil.
(Size 4/0 THW would have adequate ampacity, but the voltage drop would be excessive.)

Example 3
A cable from a main switchboard to a feed mill is 160m long. The feed mill requires a 415VAC, three phase,
80A supply. As there is already a voltage drop before the main switchboard, we need to limit the voltage
drop of this new cable to 3%. What size cable is required?
80A x 160m = 12800Am / 3 (%) = 4267 Am per %Vd.
Looking up this value in the table, 50mm2 is the smallest suitable size.
Concept of back emf
When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque induces on the conductor, the
torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field. According to the Electromagnetic
Induction Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor”.
The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced EMF.
According to Fleming Right Hand Rule, if we hold our thumb, middle finger and index finger of the right
hand by an angle of 90°, then the index finger represents the direction of the magnetic field. the thumb
shows the direction of motion of the conductor and the middle finger represents the emf induces on the
conductor.
On applying the right-hand rule in the figure shown below, it is seen that the direction of the induced emf
is opposite to the applied voltage. Thereby the emf is known as the counter emf or back emf.
The back emf is developed in series with the applied voltage, but opposite in direction, i.e., the back emf
opposes the current which causes it.
The magnitude of the back emf is given by the same expression shown below:

Where Eb is the induced emf of the motor known as Back EMF, A is the number of parallel paths through
the armature between the brushes of opposite polarity. P is the number of poles, N is the speed, Z is the total
number of conductors in the armature and ϕ is the useful flux per pole.

The Need for Starters for a Dc Motor

While starting a DC motor huge amount of current can be driven to the windings due to the absence of the
back emf. The current may rise about 4-6 times higher than the rated load current of the winding wire. So, it
can damage the winding of the motor at the starting itself. To prevent such high current rush, starters are
used in DC motors.
Actually, a starter consists of a variable series resistance which is added to the armature of the motor. It is
used in order to reduce the starting voltage across the winding.
When the motor speeds up the starter resistance decrease gradual and it will disconnect completely when the
armature attains enough speed to generate the back emf (that is the normal speed). At a full speed, the starter
has no effect on the armature circuit of the motor. Then the contacts of the motor terminals will be directly
connected.

STARTERS FOR DC MOTOR

The torque of a dc motor is directly proportional to the product of flux and armature current and is quite
independent of speed, i.e., T ∝ ɸIa. Hence in order to have high starting torque for a given armature current,
the flux must be increased to the maximum value possible.
In case of a dc shunt motor, the flux ɸ remains constant as field is connected directly across the constant
voltage supply mains and the armature current is controlled by connecting a starting resistance in series with
the armature. The torque, which is directly proportional to armature current (as shown in Fig. 1.58) is
limited by the maximum starting current- full-load current will develop full-load torque, twice full- load
current will provide twice full-load torque, and so on. As the motor speeds up the starting resistance is cut
out.
In case of a dc shunt motor reduced-voltage starting method cannot be used because a reduction in supply
voltage would reduce the flux proportionately and hence the starting torque.
In the case of a dc series motor as the field winding is connected in series with the armature therefore, the
current in the series field winding and the armature is the same. Since up to saturation point the flux is
directly proportional to the current flowing through the field and after saturation point the flux is
independent of current and remains almost constant, the torque, therefore, varies as the square of the
armature current up to saturation point and varies directly as the armature current beyond saturation point.
The torque- armature current characteristic is shown in figure below.

In case of series wound motor since torque is independent of the applied voltage and the speed, hence
reduction of voltage applied across the series motor is a very suitable method for its starting, which is
achieved by connecting a resistance in series with the motor.
When the series motors operate in pairs, series-parallel method of voltage control can be employed.

Starters for Shunt and Compound Wound DC Motors

Starters are used to limit the starting current to a safer value and obtain the required starting torque.
It is pertinent to note that while starting dc shunt and compound motors, it is advantageous to keep the field
excitation at its maximum value. A large field current, therefore, a higher value of flux will result in a low
operating speed and in higher motor torque for a particular value of starting current because motor torque is
proportional to the product of flux per pole and armature current. Thus for a given load torque, the motor
will accelerate quickly and take less time to reach the lower operating speed from the starting instant. This
will result in less heating of the armature during starting. Thus the rheostat, in series with the shunt field
winding, should be at zero resistance position at the time of starting of the dc shunt and compound motors.
The starter for a shunt motor (three-point starter) is shown in Fig. 1.59. At start all resistances are in series
with the armature, the holding coil (through the starter arm A) is across the line. As the speed builds up and
the back emf increases the arm A is moved to the right. This decreases the armature resistance and the
armature has greater emf.
At normal speed when the back emf is large enough to limit the armature current, the holding coil and starter
arm A make contact. Both the field and armature are directly across the line. Current through the holding
coil keeps the arm in this position. If for any reason the line voltage should fail, the magnetic field of the
holding coil ceases and under the action of the spring the arm goes back to its off position. This will keep the
line voltage open. Because of this action the starter protects the motor.
Restarting after a line voltage failure can only be done by using the protective series resistance in the
armature circuit. The starter is also provided with an overload release coil to protect the motor against the
flow of excessive current due to overload. This coil is connected in series with motor and so carries full-load
current.
When the motor is overloaded it draws heavy current, which also flows through the coil and magnetises it to
such an extent, that it pulls its armature upwards and so short circuit the no-voltage release coil, as shown in
Fig. 1.59. The no-volt release coil being short circuited demagnetises and releases the starter arm which goes
back to the off position and the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply mains.
In a three-point starter, discussed above, no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field and
the field rheostat, and therefore, the current flowing through the field is the same current that flows through
the holding coil. Thus if sufficient resistance is cut in by the field rheostat so that the holding coil current is
no longer able to create sufficient electromagnetic pull to overcome the spring tension, the starter arm pulls
back to the off position.
Hence three-point starter is unsuitable for use with speed- controlled motors and that has resulted in the wide
spread application of four-point starters. A four-point starter with its internal wiring connected to a long
shunt compound motor is shown in Fig. 1.60. In this arrangement ‘no-volt release coil’ circuit is
independent of shunt field circuit and, therefore, it will not be affected by the change of the current in the
shunt field circuit.

DC Series Motor Starter:

The series motor starter serves the same purpose as the three- and four-point starters employed with shunt
and compound wound motors. However, series motor starter has different internal and external connections.
A series motor starter with holding coil and overload release is illustrated in Fig. 1.61. Holding coil protects
the motor against “no volt” and “no load” whereas overload release protects the motor against the flow of
excessive current.
For switching off the dc series motor, the line switch should always be opened rather than throwing back the
starting arm, as in case of dc shunt and compound motors. If it is done, then heavy sparking is caused at the
stud 1, because here the field circuit is broken and the entire energy stored in the magnetic field is dissipated
in the form of heavy spark.
However, there is one significant difference. In case of a dc series motor, the flux does not remain constant
but varies with the current because the line current, field current and armature current are the same. Thus the
back emf at any given speed varies as the current varies between the upper and lower limits. The practical
result of this is that a series motor starter has a smaller number of steps than that required for a starter of a dc
shunt motor of the same rating with the same current limits. This is because an increase in current causes
increase in back emf and thus the current rise tends to be self-limiting. As a result of the fewer steps, the
resistance of each “section of the starter resistor is greater than for the shunt motor starter.
Since flux varies during the starting operation and its relation to the field current is non-linear, the
determination of the number of steps is rather complicated.
Drum Type Series Motor Speed Controller:
DC series motors are often employed on cranes, elevators, tramcars and other applications, where the motor
is under the direct control of an operator. In these applications, frequent starting, variations of speed,
stopping and reversing may be necessary. A manually operated controller, more rugged than a starting
rheostat, called a drum controller, is employed.
The controller is in the form of rotating drum having segments which makes contact with the fixed points.
Speed controller of this type is shown in Fig. 1.62 in which K is an arc braking coil- EM is a braking
electromagnet; FLS is a switch for rotation in one direction and RLS is a switch for rotation in reverse
direction. The controller has six positions for forward and six positions for reverse rotation of the motor. The
working positions of the controller are shown by vertical dotted lines. The electromagnet EM, is connected
in parallel with the motor and releases the motor at starting. When the motor is disconnected it is braked
mechanically.
Now when the knife blade switch is closed and the controller is set in forward position 1, the connections are
along vertical line one. In this position segments make contacts with fixed points 6 and 7, 8 and 9. In this
position current flows from +ve bus-bar through armature winding of the motor, arc braking coil K, all the
starting resistances 1-6, fixed points 6 and 7 through controller segments, series field winding, the forward
limit switch FLS, fixed points 9 and 8 through controller segments and returns back to the negative bus-bar.
In the second forward position, the segments of the controller come in contact with fixed points 5 and 6
thereby bringing some of the starting resistance out of circuit, so speed of the series motor increases. In the
subsequent forwarding positions 3rd, 4th and 5th, additional steps of the starting resistances are brought out
of the circuit and finally in 6th position all the starting resistances are short circuited and motor attains
maximum speed.
In all the six forward positions the direction of current in armature as well as in series field winding is same
(from right to left), as shown in Fig. 1.62.
But in first reverse position the current flows from + ve bus-bar through armature winding, arc braking coil
K, all the starting resistances 1-6, fixed points 6 and 10 through controller segments, the reverse limit switch
RLS, the series field winding, fixed points 7 and 8 through controller segments and returns back to the – ve
bus-bar. Hence it is obvious that in reversing positions direction of flow of current in armature winding
remains unchanged, while reverses through the series field winding, thereby reversing the direction of
rotation of motor.
Automatic Starters:
Push-button types of automatic starters are quite common in use in industry. Even an inexperienced
operator, with the help of such starters, called the auto-starters, can start and stop the motor without any
difficulty.
The operation of such starters depends upon, either the time delay or the counter emf developed across the
armature terminals.
Counter-EMF Starter:
This type of starter depends upon the buildup of the back or counter emf to operate the contactors (a heavy
duty relay designed to open or close an electrical power circuit), which in turn causes the starting resistors to
be shorted. The connections of a counter-emf starter are shown in Fig. 1.63.

When the motor is switched on, the counter emf developed by the motor is zero and the voltage across
contactor coil A or B is insufficient to energize the relays. Consequently the contactors A and B are
normally open and, therefore, starting resistances R1 and R2 are in series with the armature. As the motor
picks up speed and builds up a counter emf the voltage across coils A and B increases until the operating
voltage of coil A is reached. Contactor A is then energized, closing the normally open contact A, shorting
out the starting resistor R1. The motor continues to pick up speed building up the counter emf until the
operating voltage of coil B is reached. Contactor B is energized, closing normally open contactor B, which
in turn shorts out the starting resistor R2 and places the armature directly across the supply mains.
The drawback of counter-emf automatic starter is that if the motor fails to start, the counter emf remains
zero, the voltage sensitive relays cannot operate and so the starting resistances may burn out. Such
occurrences can, however, be avoided by using definite time-limit starters.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency of D.C. Machine

The condition for maximum efficiency of a d.c. machine is that, VARIABLE LOSSES must be equal to
CONSTANT. That is variable losses = constant losses.
The constant losses includes windage loss, bearing loss, brush loss, hysteresis losses and eddy current losses
on pole shoe which are the effect of armature reaction is completely neutralise using interpoles and
compensator windings which are the variable losses.
To achieve the maximum efficiency condition, constant losses = variable
That is total losses are zero.
∴ input = output.
Efficiency = (input/output)×100
As input = output
Hence efficiency=100(maximum)
Parallel Operation of dc Generator
For supplying a large DC load, it is desirable to use more than one generator in parallel. This arrangement
provides the security that if one generator gives way, the other can feed part load.

The Condition for dc Generators in Parallel

1. Same voltage rating
2. Same percentage voltage regulation
3. Same percentage speed regulation of the prime mover

TRANSFORMER
INTRODUCTION

A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by
electromagnetic induction (transformer action). The electrical energy is always transferred without a change
in frequency, but may involve changes in magnitudes of voltage and current. Because a transformer works
on the principle of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with an input source voltage that varies in
amplitude. There are many types of power that fit this description; for ease of explanation and
understanding, transformer action will be explained using an ac voltage as the input source.

BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of: A primary coil or winding.
A secondary coil or winding
A core that supports the coils or windings
Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary winding is
connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses
(contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary
winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes
alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the
design of the primary and secondary windings.
AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a
magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
coils.

BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in one
circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or lowered in a
circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is linked
by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate and
inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working principle of the transformer
can be understood from the figure below.

As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations are joined in the
form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-
section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be

‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the
transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a
source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil
and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be
explained with the help of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred magnetically
from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary winding.
The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.

Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.

The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction

TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the coils of
wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the
transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60
hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of
transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.

The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:

The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.

The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load.

The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.
(i) CORE

There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers. One is the HOLLOWCORE,
so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center. This shape of core. Notice that
the core is made up of many laminations of steel it shows how the transformer windings are wrapped around
both sides of the core.

(ii) WINDINGS

As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped around a core.
The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the windings and a load device
is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY WINDING.
The winding that is connected to the load is called the SECONDARY WINDING. The primary is wound in
layers directly on a rectangular cardboard form.

Basic Equations and Applications of Single Phase Transformer

EMF Equation of Transformer:

Let the applied voltage V1 applied to the primary of a transformer, with secondary open-circuited, be
sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current I1, due to applied voltage V1, will also be a sine wave. The mmf
N1 I1 and core flux Ø will follow the variations of I1 closely. That is the flux is in time phase with the
current I1 and varies sinusoidally.
Let,

NA = Number of turns in primary

NB = Number of turns in secondary

Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax X A f = Frequency of alternating current
input in hertz (HZ)

As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Ømax in one
quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.

Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax/ ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in volts. Therefore,

average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt

If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.

Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11 Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X
4f Ømax = 4.44f Ømax Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of primary turns

 Therefore,

EA = 4.44f NAØmax = 4.44fNABmA

Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is

EB = 4.44f NB Ømax = 4.44fNBBmA

In an ideal transformer on no load, VA = EA and VB = EB , where VB is the terminal voltage

Voltage Transformation Ratio.

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is known as the voltage transformation
ratio and is designated by letter K. i.e.

Voltage transformation ratio, K = V2/V1 = E2/E1 = N2/N1

Current Ratio.

The ratio of secondary current to primary current is known as current ratio and is reciprocal
of voltage transformation ratio in an ideal transformer.

Transformer on No Load.

When the primary of a transformer is connected to the source of an ac supply and the secondary is open
circuited, the transformer is said to be on no load. The Transformer on No Load alternating applied voltage
will cause flow of an alternating current I0 in the primary
winding, which will create alternating flux Ø. No-load current I0, also known as excitation or exciting
current, has two components the magnetizing component Im and the energy component Ie. Im is used to
create the flux in the core and Ie is used to overcome the hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the
core in addition to small amount of copper losses occurring in the primary only (no copper loss occurs in the
secondary, because it carries no current, being open circuited.)

From vector diagram shown in above it is obvious that

1. Induced emfs in primary and secondary windings, E1 and E2 lag the main flux Ø by and are in
phase with each other.

2. Applied voltage to primary V1 and leads the main flux Ø by and is in phase opposition to E1.

3. Secondary voltage V2 is in phase and equal to E2 since there is no voltage drop in secondary.

4. Im is in phase with Ø and so lags V1 by

5. Ie is in phase with the applied voltage V1.

6. Input power on no load = V1Ie = V1I0 cos Ø0 where Ø0 = tan-1

Transformer on Load:
 The transformer is said to be loaded, when its secondary circuit is completed through an impedance
or load. The magnitude and phase of secondary current (i.e. current flowing through secondary) I2 with
respect to secondary terminals depends upon the characteristic of the load i.e. current I2 will be in phase, lag
behind and lead the terminal voltage V+2+ respectively when the load is non-inductive, inductive and
capacitive. The net flux passing through the core remains almost constant from no-load to full load
irrespective of load conditions and so core losses remain almost constant from no-load to full load. Vector
diagram for an ideal transformer supplying inductive load is shown

Resistance and Leakage Reactance In actual practice, both of the primary and secondary windings have got
some ohmic resistance causing voltage drops and copper losses in the windings. In actual practice, the total
flux created does not link both of the primary and secondary windings but is divided into three components
namely the main or mutual flux Ø linking both of the primary and secondary windings, primary leakage flux
ØL1 linking with primary winding only and secondary leakage flux ØL2 linking with secondary winding
only. The primary leakage flux ØL1 is produced by primary ampere-turns and is proportional to primary
current, number of primary turns being fixed. The primary leakage flux ØL1 is in phase with I1 and produces
self induced emf ØL1 is in phase with I1 and produces self induced emf EL1 given as 2f L1 I1 in the primary
winding.

The self induced emf divided by the primary current gives the reactance of primary and is denoted by X1.
i.e. X1 = EL1/I1 = 2πfL1I1/I1 = 2FL1,

Similarly leakage reactance of secondary X2 = EL2/E2 = 2fπL2I2/I2 = 2πfL2

Equivalent Resistance and Reactance. The equivalent resistances and reactance’s of transformer windings
referred to primary and secondary sides are given as below Referred to primary side Equivalent resistance,

Equivalent resistance, = X'1 = Referred to secondary side Equivalent resistance,

Equivalent resistance, = X2 + K2X1 Where K is the transformation ratio.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power transformer is
an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of electrical power system which
may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an electrical power transformer, viewing from
primary side or secondary side as per requirement. This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage
impedance is also very essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter
during installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of different
power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power transformers. The
percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can be said that
equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of % impedance.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary

For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish
general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary side. For
doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the figure
below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary winding is E1.
Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or
I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across winding is countered by
primary induced emf E1.

The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one is no -
load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current has two a component or
branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of transformer. This parallel path
of current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive
branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as
The types of single phase induction motors are:
1. Split phase induction motor.
2. Capacitor start induction motor.
3. Capacitor start and capacitor run motor.
4. Shaded pole induction motor.

The differences between synchronous motor and indictor motor is as tabulated below:

S/N BASIS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

DIFFERENCE

1 Type of A synchronous motor is a doubly excited An induction motor is a single

Excitation machine. excited machine.

2 Supply System Its armature winding is energized from an Its stator winding is energized from
AC source and its field winding from a DC an AC source.
source.

3 Speed It always runs at synchronous speed. The If the load increased the speed of the
speed is independent of load. induction motor decreases. It is
always less than the synchronous
speed.

4 Starting It is not self starting. It has to be run up to Induction motor has self starting
synchronous speed by any means before it
 can be synchronized to AC supply. torque.

5 Operation A synchronous motor can be operated with An induction motor operates only at
lagging and leading power by changing its a lagging power factor. At high loads
excitation. the power factor becomes very poor.

6 Usage It can be used for power factor correction An induction motor is used for
in addition to supplying torque to drive driving mechanical loads only.
mechanical loads.

7 Efficiency It is more efficient than an induction motor Its efficiency is lesser than that of the
of the same output and voltage rating. synchronous motor of the same
output and the voltage rating.

8 Cost A synchronous motor is costlier than an An induction motor is cheaper than

induction motor of the same output and the synchronous motor of the same
voltage rating output and voltage rating.

The applications of inductor are:

1. Pumps

2. Compressors

3. Small fans

4. Mixers

5. Toys

6. High speed vacuum cleaners

7. Electric shavers

8. Drilling machines

9. Lifts

10. Cranes

11. Hoists

12. Large capacity exhaust fans

13. Driving lathe machines

 14. Crushers

15. Oil extracting mills

Textile