Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Chemical and Bioengineering

General and Inorganic Chemistry (Chem 1061)
Total Credit Hours: 6 ECTS

Prepared by Sendeku Takele (Dr. rer. nat.)_2024

Office: PC104
Introduction to Chemistry
 An overview of methods used
 Overview of Chemistry, in modern chemistry
including classification • Chromatography

 Concepts in Inorganic Chemistry • Spectroscopy

 Chemical equations • Diffraction methods

 Stoichiometry  Laboratory practices

• Laboratory safety
 Thermochemistry
• Synthesis

• Analysis
Introduction to Chemistry

 Chemistry is the scientific discipline that focuses on matter.

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

 Chemistry deals with a matter’s:

• Composition

• Structure
• Properties, and

• Changes that occur in matter.

• Chemical

• Physical
Chemical Change

 A processes, where a substance is transformed into another form as a

result of combination or dissociation of atoms.

 Examples
• Rusting

• Burning

• Fermentation

• Changing milk to yogurt, and

• Addition of water to calcium oxide

Physical Change
 A process, where a matter doesn’t change its identity, and can be
reversed.

 Each matter retains its composition.

 Most physical changes are accompanied by changes in physical state

melting of solids boiling of liquids

 Water remains H2O whether it is in solid state (ice), liquid water or

gaseous state (steam).

 Physical change also involves making or separating mixtures.

Physical properties can be;
 Extensive physical properties: depend on the quantity of sample.

 Examples

• Length, Diameter, Mass, and Volume

 Intensive physical properties: do not depend on the quantities of a

substance present.

 Examples

• Color, Melting point, and Hardness

 Intensive properties are useful in distinguishing between different

substances because they do not vary from sample to sample.
Basic Chemistry Vocabulary Definitions
Accuracy: When you measure something, the accuracy is how close your
measured value is to the real value.

Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy needed for a chemical

reaction to take place.

Activity series: Arrangement of elements in the order of how much they

tend to react with water and acids.

Actual yield: When you do a chemical reaction, this is the amount of

chemical that you actually make (i.e. the amount of stuff you can weigh).

Adsorption: When one substance collects of the surface of another one

Alkali metals: Group I in the periodic table

Alkaline earth metals: Group II in the periodic table

Alkaline earth metals: Group II in the periodic table

Alkane: An organic molecule which contains only single carbon-carbon

bonds

Alkene: An organic molecule containing at least one C=C bond

Alkyne: An organic molecule containing at least one C-C triple bond

Allotropes: When you have different forms of an element in the same state.

Amphoteric: When something is both an acid and a base.

Anode: The electrode where oxidation occurs. In other words, this is where
electrons are lost by a substance.

Aqueous: dissolved in water

Atomic radius: This is one half the distances between two bonded nuclei.
Battery: This is when a bunch of voltaic cells are stuck together.

Bidentate ligand: A ligand that can attach twice to a metal ion.

Bond energy: The amount of energy it takes to break one mole of bonds.

Bond length: The average distance between the nuclei of two bonded
atoms.

Buffer: A liquid that resists change in pH by the addition of acid or base.

Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being

used up by the reaction

Cathode: The electrode in which reduction occurs.

Chromatography: This is when you use a system containing a mobile
phase and a stationary phase to separate different compounds.

Combustion: When a compound combines with oxygen gas to form water,

heat, and carbon dioxide

Concentration: A measurement of the amount of solute dissolved in a

liquid

Condensation: When a vapor reforms a liquid

Decomposition: When a big molecule falls apart to make two or littler

ones.

Diffusion: When particles move from areas of high concentration to areas

of low concentration.

Dilution: When you add solvent to a solution to make it less concentrated

Dipole moment: When a molecule has some charge separation
(usually because the molecule is polar), it's said to have a dipole
moment.

Dipole-dipole force: When the positive end of a polar molecule

becomes attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule.

Dissociation: When water dissolves a compound.

Distillation: This is when you separate a mixture of liquids by heating

it up.
Electrolysis: When electricity is used to break apart a chemical compound.

Electrolyte: An ionic compound that dissolves in water to conduct electricity.

Electron affinity: The energy change that accompanies the addition of an

electron to an atom in the gas phase.

Electro negativity: A measurement of how much an atom tends to steal

electrons from atoms that it's bonded to.

Electropositive: When something is not at all electronegative.

Endpoint: The point where you actually stop a titration, usually because an
indicator has changed color.
Enthalpy: A measurement of the energy content of a system.

Entropy: A measurement of the randomness in a system.

Excited state: A higher energy level that electrons can jump to when
energy is added.

Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture where the substances aren't equally

distributed.

Homogeneous mixture: A mixture that looks really "smooth" because

everything is mixed up really well.

Indicator: A compound that turns different colors at different pH values.

Le Chatlier's Principle: When you disturb equilibrium (by adding more
chemical, by heating it up, etc.), it will eventually go back into equilibrium
under a different set of conditions.

Redox reaction: A reaction that has both an oxidation and reduction.

Reversible reaction: A reaction in which the products can make reagents,

as well as the reagents making products.

Spontaneous change: A change that occurs by itself

Sublimation: When a solid can change directly into a gas. Dry ice does
this.

Theoretical yield: The amount of product which should be made in a

chemical reaction if everything goes perfectly.

VSEPR: A theory for predicting molecular shapes that assumes that

electrons like to be as far from each other as possible.
 Classification of Chemistry
• Inorganic chemistry

• Organic chemistry

• Physical chemistry and

• Analytical chemistry

 Inorganic chemistry is the study of all the elements and their

compounds with the exception of organic compounds and their
derivatives.

 Oxides, sulphides and carbonates are from the important classes of

inorganic compounds.
 Organic chemistry is the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their derivatives
with the exception of carbides, cyanides, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.

 Perhaps the most remarkable feature of organic chemistry is that it is the

chemistry of carbon and a few other elements, chiefly, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, halogens and sulphur.

 The major nutrients in the food comprises of organic compounds such as

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, etc.
 Physical chemistry is the study of physical properties of materials,
such as their thermal, electrical and magnetic behavior and their
interaction with electromagnetic fields.

 It is concerned with interactions and transformations of materials.

Unlike other branches, it deals with the principles of physics
underlying all chemical interactions (e.g., gas laws), seeking to
measure, correlate, and explain the quantitative aspects of reactions.

 Some important divisions of physical chemistry are thermodynamics,

spectroscopy, quantum chemistry, chemical kinetics and
electrochemistry.
 Analytical chemistry is concerned with the development of theoretical
foundations and methods of chemical analyses.

 It involves separating, identifying and determining the relative amount

of components in a sample of material.

 The craft of Analytical Chemistry improving established methods,

extending existing methods to new types of samples, and developing new
methods for measuring chemical phenomena.
Chemical Equations/Reactions

 It is a process by which one or more substances are changed into

one or more new substances.
Examples

Before After

H2 gas H2O liquid

and

O2 gas
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water
Word Equations

To write a word equation,

 Write the names of the reactants to the left of the arrow
separated by plus signs;

 Write the names of the products to the right of the arrow, also
separated by plus signs.

Reactant + Reactant  Product + Product

Parts of a Chemical Reaction

Reactants  Products

 Reactants: Substances that are destroyed by the chemical change

(bonds break).

 Products: Substances created by the chemical change (new bonds

form).

The arrow () is read as “yields”.

Translating Word Equations to Skeleton Equations

 A skeleton equation uses chemical formulas rather than words to

identify the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.

 The word equation

Iron (s) + chlorine (g)  iron (III) chloride (s)

 The skeleton equation

Fe(s) + Cl2(g)  FeCl3 (s)

A skeleton equation is not yet “balanced” by coefficients!

Important Symbols
Balancing Chemical Equations

 To write a balanced chemical equation,

1. Write the skeleton equation, and 2. Use coefficients to balance the

equation so that it obeys the law of conservation of mass.

During a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed

(Conservation of Mass). Remember you want the same number of
atoms of each element on each side of the equation.
Example
 Hydrogen and oxygen react to form water. The reaction releases
enough energy to launch a rocket.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

Example
 Hydrogen and oxygen gas react to form water:

H2 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O (l)

 What is wrong with this equation above? Doesn’t it appear that

one oxygen atom “went missing”?

 According to conservation of mass, the proper way to write this

reaction is:

2H2 (g) + 1O2 (g)  2H2O (l)

The red coefficients represent the # of molecules (or the # of moles)

of each reactant or product.
 Not All Properties are Conserved During Chemical
Reactions!

Conserved:
Not conserved:
 Color
 Mass
 Physical state (solid, liquid, gas)
 Types of atoms
 Volume
 Number of each atom
 Number of moles of reactants/products
Exercice

Aluminum is a good choice for outdoor furniture as it reacts with

oxygen in the air to form a thin protective coat of aluminum oxide.

Balance the chemical equation.

Al(s) + O2(g) Al2O3(s)

Work by your own

 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in which

sodium hydroxide and calcium bromide react to produce solid
calcium hydroxide and sodium bromide. (The reaction occurs in
water.)

NaOH(aq)+CaBr2(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)+NaBr(aq)
The five types of chemical reactions

Synthesis

Combustion Decomposition

Chemical
Reactions

Double Single
Replacem Replacem
ent ent
Stoichiometry

 The study of chemical change is at the heart of chemistry

 Stoichiometry, a term derived from the Ancient Greek words

• Stoicheion  element

• Metron  measure

 Therefore it is an area of study that examines the quantity of

substances consumed and produced in a chemical reaction.

 Stoichiometry is about measuring the amounts of elements and

compounds involved in a reaction.
 Stoichiometry built on an understanding of atomic masses,
formulas, and the law of conservation of mass.

 Atoms are neither created nor destroyed (i.e., not dealing with
nuclear reactions).
Consider the chemical equation:
4NH3 + 5O2  6H2O + 4NO

With Stoichiometry we find out that

4:5:6:4

is what we call a mole ratio.

1. How many moles of H2O are produced if 2.00 moles of O2 are
used?

2. How many moles of NO are produced in the reaction if 15 mol of

H2O are also produced?

4NH3 + 5O2  6H2O + 4NO

 Notice that a correctly balanced equation is essential to get the

right answer
Limiting and Excess Reagents

 Limiting reagent: finished at the end of the product is produced.

 Excess reagent: remains left over after the product is produced.

Example
Thermochemistry

 Thermochemistry – studies the changes in energy that occur in

chemical reactions.

 The change in energy that accompanies a chemical reaction is

represented as H.

 Heat (Enthalpy) change, H; is the amount of heat energy released or

absorbed during a process.
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes
Exothermic Processes

Processes in which energy is released as it proceeds, and surroundings

become warmer

Reactants  Products + energy

Endothermic Processes

 Processes in which energy is absorbed as it proceeds, and

surroundings become colder

Reactants + energy  Products

Phase Change Diagram

 Processes occur by addition of energy 

  Processes occur by removal of energy

Chromatography Mobile phase

 It uses to separate components sample

(solutes) in a sample mixture More

interaction with
based on their interaction with the stationary phase

Stationary phase
mobile and stationary phases.

 Stationary phase (solid or liquid)-

More
retain the substances within the interaction with
mobile phase
column.

 Mobile phase (gas or liquid)-

transport substances through the
Mobile phase
column.
Chromatography can be;

• Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

• Liquid chromatography (LC)

• Gas chromatography (GC)

TLC
 Chromatography carried out on active
particulate material (silica gel or alumina)
dispersed on an Inert support (flat glass
plates)
 TLC can be used to check sample purity.
LC

 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

 Mobile phase is a liquid and stationary phase can be liquid or solid
 Sample must be soluble in mobile phase
Instrumentation of HPLC
HPLC Detector
Characteristics of typical HPLC detectors

Detectors Response Sensitivity

(ng/mL)
Refractive index Universal 1000

Conductimetric Selective 100

UV/visible absorption Selective 10

Mass-spectrometry Selective 0.1

Fluorescence Selective 0.001

GC

 It uses for separation of volatile substances, or substances that can

be made volatile; sample should be volatile.

 The mobile phase is gas and the stationary phase can be liquid or
solid.

 The mobile phase (carrier gas) should be chemically inert, dry

and free from O2 (helium, argon, nitrogen and hydrogen).
Instrumentation of GC
GC Detectors

 Thermal conductivity detector (TCD)

 Flame ionization detector (FID)

 Nitrogen phosphorous detectors (NPD)

Spectroscopy

 Spectroscopy involves the study of light that is absorbed or

emitted by a substance.
Spectroscopy

 Interaction of light or electromagnetic radiation with matter

(atom, molecule and ion)

 When radiation meets matter, the radiation is either

absorbed, emitted, or scattered.

• Absorption- light is absorbed

• Emission- light is emitted or released

• Scattering- light is dispersed

 In absorption spectroscopy- an electromagnetic radiation is
absorbed by an atom or molecule, which undergoes transition
from a lower energy state to a higher energy or excited state.

 In emission spectroscopy- atoms or molecules first absorb energy

and then emits this energy as light.

 Scattering spectroscopy measures certain physical properties by

measuring the amount of light that a matter scatters at certain
wavelengths (Raman spectroscopy).
Further when radiation interacts with matter a number of processes
can occur:

• Transmission- light is allowed to pass through

• Reflection- light is reflected or bounced away

• Diffraction- shows wave nature

• Refraction- shows particle nature

• Interference- light is disturbed

• Polarization- light vibration is restricted to one direction

Spectrophotometer

 Measures absorbance or transmittance of

light, as a function of wavelength

General procedure:
Cuvette
• Sample is placed into cuvette

• Light of selected wavelength (λmax)

is passed through sample

• Instrument measures the amount of light

absorbed by the sample

Spectrophotometer
Beer’s Law

 Describes the relationship between the absorbance of a solution,

and its concentration:

“The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of

the solution.”
Solution concentration
A=εLc
(mol/L)
Absorbance

Molar absorptivity constant Length of path traveled by

(depends on combination of light
solute/solvent/λ)
Exercise

The molar absorptivity of ethanal in hexane at its λmax is 15 Lcm-1mol-1.

Calculate the concentration of ethanal in a solution that has an

absorbance of 0.652 with a path length of 1.2 cm.
 Role of Chemistry in Society
 Applications of chemical science have contributed significantly to the
advancement of human civilization.

 Chemists were considered a societal problem solver. They synthesized

crop enhancing agricultural chemicals to ensure a constant and viable
food supply.

 They played a significant role in the eradication of deadly diseases by

developing life saving pharmaceuticals and chemical pesticides.
Industries Based on Chemistry Science
Chemicals:
• Agricultural chemicals

• Electronic reagents

• Paints and solvents

• Petrochemical feed stocks

• Pharmaceuticals

• Soaps and detergents

Industries Based on Chemistry Science…

Materials:
• Ceramics

• Glass

• Metals and alloys

• Paper

• Plastics and rubbers

• Synthetic fibers
 Skills needed for Chemistry laboratory practices

 Laboratory work is an established part of courses in chemistry in higher

education.

 The original reasons for its development lay in the need to produce
skilled technicians for industry and highly competent workers for
research laboratories.

 Chemistry is an experimental science that combines academic study with

the acquisition of practical and investigatory skills.
 Major skills in lab environment

 Skills in the safe handling of chemical materials

 Skills required for conducting the standard laboratory procedures

 Skills in monitoring, by observation and measurement, of chemical

properties, events or changes, and the systematic and reliable recording
and documentation thereof.

 Competence in planning, design and execution of practical

investigations, from the problem recognition stage to the evaluation and
appraisal of results and findings; this includes the ability to select
appropriate techniques and procedures.
Major skills in lab environment…

 Skills in the operation of standard chemical instrumentation

 Ability to interpret data derived from laboratory observations and

measurements in terms of their significance and the theory
underlying them.

 Ability to conduct risk assessments concerning the use of chemical

substances and laboratory procedures.
 Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus

 Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which are

designed to perform various tasks in the laboratory.

On the basis of their use, these apparatus can be broadly classified into
three categories:

1. Reaction vessels, e.g., Beakers, flasks, boiling tubes and test tubes.

2. Measuring equipments, e.g., Pipettes, burettes, balances and

thermometers

3. Support and heating devices, e.g. Stand and clamp, tripod and gauze,
and Bunsen burner.
Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus …
Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus …
Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus …
 Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules

 Chemistry laboratory may be considered as a place of discovery and

learning.

 However, by the nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of danger if

proper common sense precautions are not taken.

 It is your duty to take reasonable care for your own health and safety and
that of others working in the laboratory.

 Therefore, it is essential that the students are taught what can go wrong,
how to prevent such events from occurring, and what to do in case of an
emergency.
Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules…
• Protect your eyes
• Wear appropriate protective
• Wear shoes that cover your feet
• Tie back loose hair
• Don't eat and drink in the laboratory
• Don't smell chemicals
• Don't pipette out solutions by mouth!
General precautions

 Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the laboratory
even if you have been wearing gloves.

 Know the hazards of the materials being used.

 When lighting the Bunsen burner, first light the match stick then turn
on the gas.

 Know how to interpret data from a MSDS (Material Safety Data

Sheets).

 Read the labels on the reagent bottles carefully to make sure that you
are using the right chemical.

 Never add water to concentrated acid solutions

 General precautions…

 If you get any chemical in your eye, immediately wash the eye with the
eye- wash fountain and notify the teacher.

 Work with volatile chemicals under a fume hood.

 Get aware with the location and proper usage of the safety equipments
like eye wash fountain, safety shower, fire extinguisher, emergency exits.

 Carry out only the experiments assigned by your teacher.

 Use equipment only as directed.

General precautions…

 Never place chemicals directly on the pan balances.

 Add boiling chips to liquid to be boiled

 Check glassware for stars or cracks.

 Never use laboratory glassware for eating or drinking purposes.

 Never remove chemicals from the laboratory.

 Never work alone in the laboratory. In case of a problem, you may

need another person to prevent injury or even save your life!
Demonstrate safe behavior

 Obey all safety instructions given by your teacher or found in your

experimental procedure.

 Clean up spills immediately if you know. If you are uncertain how to

clean up a spill or if a large spill occurs, notify your teacher
immediately.

 Before leaving the lab, be sure to replace the lids to all containers,
return equipment and chemicals to their proper places and clean up
your work area.

 Know how to dispose off waste. Dispose off all waste materials
according to your instructional procedure or your teacher’s
instructions.
Remember!

The lab is a place for serious work! Careless behavior may endanger
yourself and others and will not be tolerated!
Writing a Laboratory Report

The purpose of writing laboratory experiment is to give practice in

writing laboratory reports that answer the general questions:
• What did you do?

• Why did you do it?

• How did you do it?

• What happened?
Writing a Laboratory Report…

• A laboratory report is a written composition of the results of an

experiment.

• It should be written precisely and clearly, using good grammar and

punctuation. Each report contains:
• Title

• Objective

• Theory

• Materials Used

• Procedure

• Observation

• Results

• Discussion And

• Conclusion.
End of Chapter One.

Thank you!