ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

An alternating current (A.C.) is one which periodically changes in magnitude and direction.

I = I0 sin (ωt + ϕ)

If ϕ is positive then current leads voltage and if ϕ is negative then current lags the voltage.

The source of alternating emf may be a dynamo or an electronic oscillator.

The alternating emf E at any instant may be expressed as E = E0 sinωt
where ω is the angular frequency of alternating emf and E 0 is the peak value or creast value or
amplitude of emf. E is the intantanous value.

Direct current (D.C.) is that current which may or may not change in magnitude but it does not
change its direction.
ADVANTAGES OF A.C. OVER D.C.
The generation of A.C. is cheaper than that of D.C.
Alternating voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer.
A.C. can be easily converted into D.C. by rectifier. D.C. is converted to A.C. by an inverter.
A.C. can be transmitted to a long distance without appreciable loss.
AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
The average value of AC over one full cycle (sine or cosine) is zero since there are equal
positive and negative half cycles.
The average current for half cycle is 2I0 /π where I0 is the peak value of current.

2 2
(Eavg= E =0.637 Eo =63.7 % of E o∨I avg= I o=0.637 I o=63.7 % of I o)
π o π

Average value of square of sine or cosine function for time period T is T/2.
T
T
Iavg= ∫ sin kwt ∨cos kwt=
2 2

0 2
 t2

Average value of function y=f(t) from t1 to t2 is defined as

∫ f ( t ) dt
t1
y avg =
t 1−t 2

RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

The rms value of alternating current can also be defined as the direct current which produces the
same heating effect in a given resistor in a given time as is produced by the given A.C. flowing
through same resistor for the same time. Due to this reason the rms value of current is also
known as effective or virtual value of current.

The rms value of alternating current is called the effective or virtual value of alternating current
Io
(or emf). I rms = =0.707 I o
√2
Similarly the rms value of alternating voltage is called the effective or virtual value of alternating
Vo
voltage (or emf).V rms = =0.707 V o
√2
yo
Rms value of sine or cosine y = yosinwt or y = yocoswt the yrms =
√2
Rms value for combined sine and cosine function y= y o+ yo1(sinw1t+ϕ1)+ yo2(sinw2t+ϕ2)+…..+
yon(sinwnt+ϕn)

√
n
1 2
Yrms= y 2o + ∑ y
i=1 2 oi

√
4 9
Ex: y= 3 + 2 sinwt+ 3 sinwt then yrms= 9+ + =
2 2
31
2 √
Time period: The time taken by A.C. to go through one cycle of changes is called its period. It
2π
is given as T =
w
Phase: It is that property of wave motion which tells us the position of the particle at any instant
as well as its direction of motion.
Phase angle: Angle associated with the wave motion (sine or cosine) is called phase angle.
Lead: Out of the current and emf the one having greater phase angle will lead the other e.g., in

equation i = i0 sin and e = e0 sin ωt, the current leads the emf by an angle .
Lag: Out of current and emf the one having smaller phase angle will lag the other. In the above

equations, the emf lags the current by .

 Io Io
I rms I o π = = √2
Form factor of AC = = X =1.11 Peak factor of AC= I rms i o
I avg √ 2 2 I o
√2
POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

The power is defined as the rate at which work is being done in the circuit. In ac circuit, the
current and emf are not necessarily in the same phase, therefore we write

E = E0 sin ωt & I = I0 sin (ωt + φ).

The instantaneous power, P = EI

= E0 I0 sin ωt sin (ωt + φ),

Eo I o
Apparent Power =ErmsIrms=
2

Reactive power (watt less power) = Erms Irms sin φ

The average power (true power or watt full power) Pav = Erms Irms cos φ ∴

Here cos φ is known as power factor. ie, cosine of phase angle difference between current and
Average power
voltage. The value of cos φ depends on the nature of the circuit. Cosϕ =
Apparent power

For pure R-circuit cos φ = 1 ( φ = 0)and for Pure L & pure C circuit, the power factor is zero ( φ
= 90º); and for all other circuit cos φ = R/Z, where Z = impedance.

If R = 0, cos φ = 0 and Pav = 0 i.e., in a circuit with no resistance, the power loss is zero. Such a
LC circuit is called the wattless circuit and the current flowing is called the wattless current. We
can resolve I rms into two components I rms cos ϕ and I rms sin ϕ. Here, the component I rms cos ϕ
contributes towards power dissipation and the component I rms sin ϕ does not contribute towards
power dissipation. Therefore, it is called wattles current.

RESISTANCE OFFERED BY INDUCTOR, RESISTOR AND CAPACITOR TO A.C.

Alternating current in a circuit may be controlled by resistance, inductance and capacitance,

while the direct current is controlled only by resistance.

IMPEDANCE (Z): Total opposition offered by all circuit elements to the flow of a.c is called
the impedance and is denoted by Z,
i.e., SI unit is ohm.

REACTANCE (X): The opposition offered by inductance or capacitance or both to the flow of
ac in an ac circuit is called reactance and is denoted by X. Thus when there is no ohmic
resistance in the circuit, the reactance is equal to impedance.

The reactance due to inductance alone is called inductive reactance and is denoted by X L, while
the reactance due to capacitance alone is called the capacitive reactance and is denoted by X C. Its
unit is also ohm.

ADMITTANCE (Y): The inverse of impedance is called the admittance and is denoted by Y,
1
i.e., y= Its SI unit is ohm–1 or mho or Siemen(S)
Z
Impedance triangle
X Z=√ R2 + X 2

Rθθ
ϕ
R
PURE RESISTOR (R)
Consider a pure ohmic resistor (zero inductance) of resistance R connected to an alternating
source of emf E = E0 sinωt.

where I is the instantaneous current in the circuit. where Io is the peak value of current I0 = E0/R
E 2E E E
Iavg= 0 for full cycle and for half cycle Iavg= avg = o Irms = rms = o
R πR R √2R
Impedance of circuit, Z = R and phase difference between current & emf ϕ= 0. Therefore,
P.f=cos ϕ=1.
Instantaneous Power = EoIosin2wt and Average power= ErmsIrmscosϕ=ErmsIrms=Erms2/R=I2rms.R
In a purely resistive ac circuit the current and voltage are in same phase, same frequency and
impedance of circuit is equal to the ohmic resistance.
Phasor diagram: Graph of emf or current versus ωt :
PURE INDUCTOR (L)
Consider a pure inductor (zero ohmic resistance) of inductance L connected to an alternating
source of emf E = E0 sin ωt.

where

where I is instanteous current in the circuit is

Z = ω L = XL =2πfL and phase difference φ = -π/2. Io is the peak value of current I0 = E0/wL

In a purely inductive circuit the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle π/2 and the
impedance to the circuit is ωL and this is called as inductive reactance X L (imaginary opposition
offered by an inductor to the flow of ac current). Unit of XL is ohm and dimension is ML2T-3A-2

Phasor diagram Graph of emf or current versus ωt Graph between XL and f

Power factor cos ϕ= cos 90o=0. Therefore Average power = 0. ie., no power is dissipated in pure
inductor circuit.

But Apparent power (rate at which energy stored in inductance) = Erms.Irms

For high frequency of ac XL becomes ꝏ and the inductor behaves as open circuit I=0. Therefore,
for higher frequencies inductor offers high resistive path to a.c.

PURE CAPACITOR (C)

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connected to an alternating source of emf,

E = E0 sin ωt.

Then the current through capacitor is given by,

Z = Capacitive reactance XC = 1/ωC and phase difference φ = + π/2

Phasor diagram Graph of emf or current versus ωt Graph between XC and f

In a purely capacitive circuit the current leads the applied emf by an angle π/2 and the impedance
of the circuit is 1/ωC and this is known as capacitive reactance. SI unit is ohm and dimension
1
ML2T-3A-2 and Z= Xc =
wC
Power factor cos ϕ= cos 90o=0. Therefore Average power = 0. ie., no power is dissipated in pure
capacitor circuit.
But Apparent power (rate at which energy stored in capacitance) = Erms.Irms

For high frequencies Xc becomes 0 and capacitor acts as a high pass filter. Therefore it allows ac
current easily.
R-L SERIES CIRCUIT
Consider a circuit containing resistance R and inductance L in series having an alternating emf E
= E0 sin ωt.
Circuit diagram Phasor diagram Graph of emf or current versus ωt

Let I be the current flowing in the circuit and VR (= IR) the potential difference across resistance
and VL (=I. ωL) the potential difference across inductance.
The current I and the potential difference V R are always in phase but the potential difference V L
across inductance leads the current I by an angle π/2.
Instantanous value I=Iosin(wt-ϕ)
From phasor diagram, resultant voltage is given by, Eo=√ V R 2+V L2 =√ ¿ ¿

∴ Impedance of R – L circuit, Z= =√ R + X L
Eo 2 2
Io
 Eo Eo
where XL = ωL and Io = = 2
Z √ R + X L2
It is obvious that the current lags behind the emf by angle φ given by,

R
p.f = cos ϕ = √ R + X L 2
2

2
Eo I o ErmsR
Pavg= cosϕ= 2 and Papp=Irms . Erms
2 √ R +wL2
RC SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C in series having an alternating emf
E = E0 sin ωt.

Circuit diagram Phasor diagram Graph of emf or current versus ωt

Let Ι be the current flowing in the circuit, VR the potential difference across resistance and VC the
potential difference across capacitance.

Instantanous value I=Iosin(wt+ϕ)

From phasor diagram, resultant voltage is given by, Eo=√ V R 2+V C2 =√ ¿ ¿

∴ Impedance of R – L circuit, Z=
Eo
=√ R + X c
2 2
Io

Eo Eo
where Xc = 1/ωC and Io = = 2
Z √ R + X c2

The potential difference VR and current I are in same phase and the potential difference V C lags
behind the current I (and hence VR) by angle π/2

The current leads the applied emf by an angle φ given by

 R
p.f = cos ϕ = √ R + X c 2
2

2
Eo I o ErmsR
cosϕ=

√
Pavg = 2 2 1 and Papp=Irms . Erms
R+ 2
wC

SERIES L-C CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C in series having an alternating emf
E = E0 sin ωt.
Circuit diagram Phasor diagram

Let I be the current flowing in circuit, V L the potential difference across inductance L and V C the
p.d. across capacitance C.
The p.d. VC lags behind the current by angle π/2 and the p.d. VL leads the current by angle π/2.

∴ Resultant applied emf, E = VC – VL = XCI – XLI

E
I= X − X
C L

∴ Reactance of circuit
E 1
X= =X c − X L =( −wL)
I wC

The current leads applied emf by ϕ=π/2

1 1
In case of XC = XL, Z = 0, then −wL∨w=
wC √ LC

∴ Frequency f =
w 1
=
2 π 2 π √ LC

At certain frequency the impedance of the circuit is minimum and the current is maximum.
This frequency is called the resonant frequency.
 π
Φ=± P.f cos ϕ=0.
2

Pavg = Erms I rms cosϕ=0 and Papp=Irms . Erms

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit containing a resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C in series having an
alternating emf. E = E0 sin ωt. Phasor diagram

Let I be the current flowing in circuit. V R, VL and VC are respective potential differences across
resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C.

The p.d VR is in phase with current I. The p.d V C lags behind the current by angle π/2. The p.d.
VL leads the current by angle π/2.

∴ Resultant applied emf, E=√ V R +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

2

E=√ (RI )2 +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

i.e., ∴ Impedance,

E
Z= =√(R) + ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2
I

The phase leads of current over applied emf is given by

It is concluded that :

If XC > XL, the value of φ is positive, i.e., current leads the applied emf.

If XC < XL, the value of φ is negative, i.e., current lags behind the applied emf.
If XC = XL, the value of φ is zero, i.e., current and emf are in same phase. ie, ϕ=0. Therefore,
cosϕ=1. LCR circuit behaves as pure resistive circuit. Power factor is unity. Current is
maximum. Impedance is minimum. This is called the case of resonance and resonant
frequency for condition XC = XL, is given by :

i.e., ∴

Thus the resonant frequency depends on the product of L and C and is independent of R.

At resonance, impedance is minimum, Zmin = R and current is maximum

Note: Before resonance the current leads the applied emf, at resonance it is in phase, and after
resonance it lags behind the emf. LCR series circuit is also called as acceptor circuit and parallel
LCR circuit is called rejecter circuit.

Note:
Wrong: Adding impedances / reactances /resistors algebraically.
Correct. For these physical quantities, vector addition must be done
Wrong: Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable in D.C. circuit only
Correct. Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable in A.C. circuit also (which may include inductor and
capacitor).
Q - Factor
The sharpness of tuning at resonance is measured by
Q-factor or quality factor of the circuit and is given by

Higher the value of Q-factor, sharper is the resonance i.e. more rapid is the fall of current from
maximum value (I0) with slight change in frequency from the resonance value.

The figure given below explains the concept of bandwidth and cut-off frequency.

Bandwidth: It is the band of allowed frequencies and is defined as the difference between upper
and lower cut-off frequencies, the frequency at which power becomes half of maximum value
and current becomes .

Summary:

Unless mentioned otherwise, all a.c. currents and voltages are r.m.s. values.

For resonance to occur, the presence of both L and C elements in the circuit is a must.

In series resonant circuit, current is maximum at resonance. In a parallel resonant circuit, current
is minimum (or zero) at resonance but p.d across the combination is maximum.

While adding voltage across different elements in an a.c. circuit we should take care of their
phases.

The average current over a complete cycle in an a.c circuit is zero but the average power is not
zero.

An inductor offers negligibly low resistance path to d.c. and a resistive path for a.c.
A capacitor acts as a block for d.c and a low resistance path to a.c.

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device for converting high voltage into low voltage and vice versa, without
change in power and frequency.
There are two types of transformers.
Step up transformer: It converts low voltage into high voltage.
Step down transformer: It converts high voltage into low voltage.
The principle of a transformer is based on mutual induction and a transformer always works on
AC. The input is applied across primary terminals and output is obtained across secondary
terminals. In a transformer, the input emf and the output emf differ in phase by π radians.

The ratio of number of turns in secondary and primary is called the turn ratio
ns
i.e., Turn ratio K= .
np
If EP and ES are alternating voltages, IP and IS the alternating currents across primary and
secondary terminals
E s ns IP
respectively then, = =K=
Ep np IS

Efficiency of transformer,

The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done with
the use of transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is
reduced and consequently, the I2R loss is cut down) and it is transmitted to long distances then it
is stepped down at area substation and again stepped down at distribution substation by 240V
reaches our home.

POWER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

Copperloss: This is due to resistance of the winding of primary and secondary coil (I2 R)
Iron loss or Eddy current loss: Loss due to leakage of magnetic flux. To reduce this transformer
core ids laminated.
Magnetic loss or Flux leakage: Loss occurred due to flux leakage. It can be reduced by winding
the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
Hysteresis: Due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization of iron core. To minimize these
losses, the transformer core is made up of a laminated soft iron strips.
Hummingloss: Due to vibration.
Inspite of all these losses, we have transformers with efficiency of more than 90%. For an ideal
transformer efficiency is 100%.