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CHAPTER 7

Alternating Current

Definition of Alternating Current

The electric current whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverse periodically is known
as alternating current (A.C)

The electric main supply sends current in a circuit which varies as a sine or cosine function of time.

Peak value : The maximum value of ac is called peak value 𝐼𝑚

The instantaneous value of the alternating current: The value of ac at a particular instant of time in
the cycle.

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Or

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡

Where 𝐼𝑚 is called current amplitude or peak (maximum) value of alternating current.

If T is the time period of A.C and f is the frequency ,

2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇

A.C as sine function of time

A.C as cosine function of time

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ALTERNATING emf

The emf or voltage, whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses periodically
is known as alternating e.m.f

The instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

or

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡

MEAN OR AVERAGE VALUE OF A.C

Since A.C varies continuously with time its effect can be measured by mean or average of
A.C.

For one complete cycle ,the current has positive values in the first half cycle and equal
negative value in the next half cycle .So for one complete cycle the average value of A.C is
zero.

PROOF

𝐼= 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑇
∫0 𝐼𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
∫0 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
0

𝐼𝑚 – cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = [ ]
𝑇 𝜔 0
2𝜋
Where 𝜔 = 𝑇

−𝐼𝑚 2𝜋 𝑇
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = [cos ( ) 𝑡 ]
𝜔𝑇 𝑇 0

− 𝐼𝑚 2𝜋
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = [cos 𝑇 − cos 0 ]
𝜔𝑇 𝑇

−𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = [ cos 2𝜋 − cos 0]
𝜔𝑇
 3

−𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = [ 1 − 1]
𝜔𝑇

𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 0
Similarly average value of alternating voltage over one complete cycle is zero

RELATION BETWEEN MEAN VALUE AND PEAK VALUE OF A.C --- For half cycle

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Suppose the current remains constant for a small time dt , then charge dq = Idt

Then total amount of charge that will pass through the circuit in 𝑇⁄2 is

𝑇⁄
2

𝑞 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑇⁄
2

𝑞 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑇⁄2
𝑞 = 𝐼𝑚 [ ]
𝜔 0

−𝐼𝑚 2𝜋 𝑇⁄
2
𝑞= [cos ( ) 𝑡 ]
𝜔 𝑇 0

−𝐼𝑚 2𝜋 𝑇
𝑞= [ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − cos 0]
𝜔 𝑇 2
−𝐼𝑚
𝑞= [cos 𝜋 − 1]
𝜔
−𝐼𝑚
𝑞= [−1 − 1]
𝜔

−𝐼𝑚
𝑞= × [−2]
𝜔
2𝜋
Where 𝜔 = 𝑇

−𝐼𝑚
𝑞 = 2𝜋 × [−2]
⁄𝑇
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𝐼𝑚 𝑇
𝑞= … … . . (1)
𝜋
Let 𝐼𝑎𝑣 is the mean value of A.C
𝐼𝑎𝑣 𝑇
For half cycle 𝑞= … … (2)
2

From (1) and (2)

𝐼𝑎𝑣 𝑇 𝐼𝑚 𝑇
=
2 𝜋
2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝜋
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 0.636 𝐼𝑚

Similarly
2𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑎𝑣 = = 0.636 𝐸𝑚
𝜋
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (rms) OR VIRTUAL VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF A.C

The square root of the mean of the squares of all the instantaneous values of current in one
complete cycle is called the rms value or effective value of current .
𝑇
2
∫0 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡

𝑇
2 1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

𝑇
2 𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡 … … (1)
𝑇
0

Where cos 2𝜔𝑡 = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡

2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = [1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡]
2
𝐼𝑚 2 𝑇 1
Substitute in Eq (1) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = ∫
𝑇 0 2
[1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡]𝑑𝑡

𝑇 𝑇
2 𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 – ∫ cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇
0 0

𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∫0 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
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𝑇
2 𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇
0

𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = [𝑇]
2𝑇

𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 =
2
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝐼𝑚
√2

Similarly
𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝐸𝑚
√2

𝐸𝑚 = √2𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1.414 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠

A.C VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR

Consider a resistor of resistance R is connected to a source of an alternating current .

Instantaneous value of alternating emf

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 … . (1)

Instantaneous value of alternating emf = Instantaneous value of potential drop across the resistance

Let 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅

𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅

From (1)
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
𝑅
𝐸𝑚
Where 𝑅
= 𝐼𝑚

Then
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 … . (2)

From eq (1) and (2) , the alternating current is in phase with the emf , when A.C flows through the a
resistance .
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Graphical representation of E and I are in phase

Phasor diagram

PHASOR DIAGRAM

In an A.C circuit ,the emf and current vary sinusoidally with time ,and mathematically represented
as,

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

And
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Where ∅ is the phase angle between alternating emf and current.

The Instantaneous value of alternating emf (E)and current (I) are the projections of emf amplitude
(𝐸𝑚 ) and current amplitude (𝐼𝑚 ) .
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Phasor diagram( I leads E by phase angle ∅)

Im

Em

Phasor --- A quantity ,which varies sinusoidally with time and represented as the projection of a
rotating vector , is called a Phasor.

Phasor diagram---The vector diagram , representing phase relationship between alternating emf
and alternating current is called a Phasor diagram.

A.C VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

Q. Explain the term inductive reactance. Show graphically the variation of inductive reactance
with frequency of the applied alternating voltage.

Q. An ac voltage v = v0 sin 𝝎𝒕 is applied across a pure inductor of inductance L. Find an expression

for the current I , flowing in the circuit and show mathematically that the current flowing through
𝝅
it lags behind the applied voltage by a phase angle of . Also draw (i) phasor diagram (ii) graphs
𝟐
of V and I versus 𝝎𝒕 for the circuit.

Inductive reactance : The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of alternating current
through it is called the inductive reactance. It is denoted by XL. XL = ω L = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳

𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝑓

Ac circuit containing pure inductance:

 8

Consider a inductor of inductance L (having no ohmic resistance ) is connected to a A.C voltage

source.

Let

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ----(1)
𝑑𝐼
The rate of change of current ,𝑑𝑡 , then

𝑑𝐼
𝐸=𝐿 … . (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼 𝐸𝑚
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝐼 𝐸𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝐸𝑚 – cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐼= ( )
𝐿 𝜔

– cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)

𝐸𝑚
𝐼= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)
𝜔𝐿

The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance, denoted by XL:
XL = ω L
𝐸𝑚
𝐼= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)
𝑋𝐿

𝐸𝑚
𝑋𝐿
= 𝐼𝑚

Therefore

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝝅⁄𝟐) … . (𝟑)

From eq 91) and (3) , the alternating current lags behind the emf by a phase angle 𝝅⁄𝟐 or one
quarter of a cycle , ie the emf leads the alternating current by a phase angle 𝝅⁄𝟐
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A.C VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

Q. Define the term capacitive reactance .Show graphically the variation of capacitive reactance with
frequency of applied alternating voltage.

An ac voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 is applied across a pure capacitor of capacitance C. Find the

expression for current flowing through it. Show mathematically the current flowing through it leads
𝜋
the applied voltage by angle 2

Capacitive reactance : The opposition offered by a capacitor alone to the flow of alternating
current through it is called the capacitive reactance. Xc = 1/ωC
𝟏
Xc =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

The graph of variation of capacitive reactance with frequency

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C is connected to source of an alternating emf .

Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t , E=𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 … (1)
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Let q = C V

𝑞 𝑞
𝐸= 𝐶
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐶

𝑞 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞
Let 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐸𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡 )
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐶 𝜔𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
1⁄
𝐶𝜔

Where (1/ωC) plays the role of resistance. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc ,

Xc = 1/ωC . The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely capacitive circuit
in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. But it is inversely
proportional to the frequency and the capacitance.

𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
𝑋𝐶

𝐸𝑚
= 𝐼𝑚
𝑋𝐶

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝅⁄𝟐) … . (𝟐)

From eq (1) & (2) The alternating current leads the e.m.f by a phase angle 𝝅⁄𝟐 or e.m.f lags
behind the current by a phase angle 𝝅⁄𝟐, when a.c passes through a circuit containing
capacitor.
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AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO L AND R IN SERIES (LR CIRCUIT )

Q. Derive an expression for impedance of an a.c . circuit consisting of an inductor and a resistor.

Consider a simple LR circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected in series with
a voltage supply of V volts. Let ER and EL be the voltage across resistor and inductor.

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝝎𝒕

𝐸 ≠ 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐿

Because the voltage across different elements are not in phase. Hence to find the resultant
voltage, phaser diagram is use

EL

I ER A

The reactance (X) is the resistance that arises on account of opposing emf induced due to
change in the strength of current The inductive resistance 𝑋𝐿 is the resistance offered by the
inductor coil.

From diagram,

𝐸 2 = 𝐸𝑅2 +𝐸𝐿2

𝐸 2 = (𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2

𝐸 2 = 𝐼 2 (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )

𝐸2
= (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )
𝐼2

𝑍 2 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )
 12

Or 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) Where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 is inductive reactance

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝝎𝑳)𝟐

Where Z is called IMPEDANCE .The total effective resistance offered by the LR circuit.

IMPEDANCE: The opposition offered by the combination of a resistor and reactive component to
the flow of ac is called impedance.

From phasor diagram of LR circuit ,voltage leads the current by a phase angle ∅

𝐸𝐿 𝐼𝑋𝐿
tan ∅ = =
𝐸𝑅 𝐼𝑅

𝑋𝐿
tan ∅ =
𝑅
𝑋𝐿
∅ = tan−1
𝑅

AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITOR AND RESISTOR IN SERIES (CR CIRCUIT)

Q. Derive an expression for impedance of an a.c . circuit consisting of an capacitor and a resistor.

Consider a simple CR circuit in which a capacitor C and resistor, R are connected in series with
a voltage supply of E volts. Let ER and EC be the voltage across resistor and capacitor.

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝝎𝒕

𝐸 ≠ 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐶

Because the voltage across different elements are not in phase. Hence to find the resultant
voltage ,phaser diagram is used.
 13

The reactance (X) is the resistance that

arises on account of opposing emf induced due to change in the strength of current The
inductive resistance 𝑋𝐶 is the resistance offered by the capacitor.

From diagram

𝐸 2 = 𝐸𝑅2 +𝐸𝑐2

𝐸 2 = (𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝑐 )2

𝐸 2 = 𝐼 2 (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )

𝐸2
= (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )
𝐼2

𝑍 2 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )

1
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 ) Where 𝑋𝐶 = 𝐶𝝎 is inductive reactance

1 𝟐
𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + ( )
𝐶𝝎

Where Z is called IMPEDANCE .The total effective resistance offered by the CR circuit.

From phasor diagram of CR circuit ,voltage leads the current by a phase angle ∅

𝐸𝐶 𝐼𝑋𝐶
tan ∅ = =
𝐸𝑅 𝐼𝑅

𝑋𝐶
tan ∅ =
𝑅
𝑿𝑪
∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝑹

(A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum
value of the vector quantity ( E or I ) and partly the end of the vector that rotates. A phasor
diagram is used to show the phase relationships between two or more sine waves having the
same frequency. Imagine that the phasors are rotating in an anticlockwise (counter clockwise)
direction)
 14

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Q. An ac source of voltage 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 is connected to a series combination of L,C, R . Use the

phasor diagram to obtain the expression for impedance of the circuit and phase angle between
voltage and current .Find the condition when current will be in phase with the voltage. What is
the circuit in this condition called?

Consider a source of an alternating emf is connected to a series LCR circuit .

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Where ∅ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the
circuit .

Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit . Let EL, ER, EC, and E represent the
voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively.( EC> EL )

By Pythagoras theorem ,
2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 2 + (𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐿 )2

𝐸𝑚 2 = (𝐼 𝑅)2 + (𝐼 𝑋𝑐 − 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝐸𝑚 2 = 𝐼 2
[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 ]

𝐸
𝐼 =
√[𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 ]

𝐸𝑚
𝐼 =
𝑍
 15

Where 𝒁 = √[𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐 ] Z is the impedance in an ac circuit:

𝟐
𝟏
𝒁 = √[𝑹𝟐 + ( − 𝑳𝝎) ]
𝑪𝝎

𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐿
From diagram , tan ∅ = 𝐸𝑅

𝐼 𝑋𝐶 − 𝐼 𝑋𝐿
tan ∅ =
𝐼 𝑅

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
tan ∅ =
𝑅

IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

XC-XL

This is called Impedance diagram which is a right-triangle with Z as its hypotenuse.

CONDITIONS

For LCR CIRCUIT

1.
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 ( 0 < ∅ < ) 1𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 , ( 𝜋 < ∅ < ) 3𝑟𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2

tan ∅ = +𝑣𝑒 .φ is positive and the circuit is capacitive. Consequently, the current in the
circuit leads the source voltage.

𝜋 3𝜋
2. 𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 ( 2 < ∅ < 𝜋) 2𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡, 2
< ∅ < 2𝜋) 4𝑡ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡

tan ∅ = −𝑣𝑒 ,φ is negative and the circuit is inductive. Consequently, the current in the circuit lags
the source voltage.

3. When current produced and emf applied are in phase .(purely resistive circuit )

tan ∅ = 0 , ∅ = 0 , 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 = 0 , then 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿

This condition is called resonance and the circuit is called resonant circuit.
 16

4. In LR circuit

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = = 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑍
√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2

𝐸𝐿 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
tan ∅ = = =
𝐸𝑅 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 𝑅

5. IN CR CIRCUIT

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2
𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = =
𝑍
√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2

𝐸𝐶 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐶
tan ∅ = = =
𝐸𝑅 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 𝑅

Resonance
The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems that have a tendency to oscillate at a
particular frequency. This frequency is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is
driven by an energy source at a frequency that is near the natural frequency,

Resonance describes the phenomenon of increased amplitude that occurs when

the frequency of an applied frequency is equal or close to a natural frequency of the system

Q. (a) State the condition for resonance to occur in series LCR a.c circuit and derive an
expression for resonant frequency .

(a) In an LCR circuit ,for resonance the current produced in the circuit and emf applied
must always be in the same phase.
Let instantaneous value of current is ,
 17

𝑬𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝒁
𝑬𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
√𝑹𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐

(X C − 𝑋𝐿 )
tan ∅ =
𝑅
1
Where 𝑋𝐶 = ωC and XL = ω L.

So if ω is varied, then at a particular value of angular frequency ω0 of the a.c , 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝑿𝑳

For resonance ∅ = 0 , then 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟎

impedance Z = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐

Z (at ω0 ) = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝟎

Z (at ω0 ) = R , ie impedance is minimum .

Then at ω0 the value of current in LCR

𝑬𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
√𝑹𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐

𝑬𝒎
𝑰𝒎 (𝐚𝐭 ω0 ) =
√𝑹𝟐 + 𝟎
𝑬𝒎
𝒊𝒆 𝑰𝒎 (𝐚𝐭 ω0 ) = 𝑹
Where 𝑰𝒎 is the maximum current with minimum impedance.

At resonance
𝟏
Xc = XL or 𝛚𝟎 𝐂
= 𝝎𝟎 𝑳 This occurs at a particular frequency called the resonant
frequency:
𝟏
• 𝝎𝟎 = … . (𝑎) 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔0 resonant angular frequency:
√𝑳𝑪
If 𝒇𝒓 is the resonance frequency corresponding to resonant angular frequency 𝜔0 , then
𝝎𝟎 𝟏
Linear resonant frequency , 𝒇𝒓 = = ….(b)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Eq a & b is called the condition for resonance in the LCR circuit.

SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE (QUALITY FACTOR)

 18

The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is measured by Q factor or quality factor

resonant frequency
𝑄=
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Let 𝜔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 are two values of 𝜔 ; such that one is greater than 𝜔0 and the other is small
than 𝜔0 and symmetrical about 𝜔0

𝜔1 = 𝜔0 + ∆𝜔

𝜔2 = 𝜔0 − ∆𝜔

𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 2∆𝜔 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡.

𝜔0
𝑄=
2∆𝜔
𝜔0
is regarded as a measure of the sharpness of resonance. The smaller the Δω, the sharper
2∆𝜔
or narrower is the resonance.

Q factor or quality factor of a resonant LCR circuit is also defined as ratio of the voltage
drop across inductor or capacitor to the applied voltage.

From (1) ,(2),& (3)

𝝎𝟎 𝑳
𝑸=
𝑹
𝟏
𝑸=
𝑪𝝎𝟎 𝑹
 19

𝟏 𝑳
𝑸= √
𝑹 𝑪

REFER AND STUDY NCERT PG .NO 248

Applications of the Resonant LC R Circuits

The resonant LCR circuits has many applications like

LCR circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers etc. An
important use of series LCR resonant circuits is in the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems.
The signals from many broadcasting stations at different frequencies are available in the air. To
receive the signal of a particular station, tuning is done. The tuning is commonly achieved by
varying capacitance of a parallel plate variable capacitor, thereby changing the resonant
frequency of the circuit. When resonant frequency is nearly equal to the frequency of the signal
of the particular station, the amplitude of the current in the circuit is maximum. Thus the signal
of that station alone is received.

It is important to note that resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are
present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other (both being out of
phase) and the current amplitude is vm /R, the total source voltage appearing across R. This means
that we cannot have resonance in a RL or RC circuit.

REFER PG NO 249

POWER IN A.C CIRCUIT --

Q. An alternating voltage 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚 𝐭 is applied to a series LCR circuit. Derive the

expression for the average power dissipated over a cycle.

Under what condition is (i) no power dissipated even though the current flows through
the circuit ,(ii) maximum power dissipated in the circuit ?

The voltage 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin ωt applied to a series L C R circuit drives a current ,

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚 𝐭 + ∅)

Instantaneous power is

𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼

𝑃 = (𝐸𝑚 sin ωt )(𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚 𝐭 + ∅))

𝑷 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑰𝒎 sin ωt 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚 𝐭 + ∅)

𝐸𝑚 𝑰𝒎
𝑷= 2sin ωt 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚 𝐭 + ∅)
2
 20

Let 2 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)

𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃= [cos(ωt − (ω t + ∅)) − cos(ωt + (ω t + ∅))
2
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃= [ cos∅ − cos(2ω t + ∅)
2

The average power over a complete cycle is

𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑇
∫0 (cos∅ − cos(2ω t + ∅))𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 2 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡

𝑇
Average of second term ; ∫0 cos(2ω t + ∅)𝑑𝑡 = 0 because it is time dependent. (+ve half cycle
of cosine cancels the negative half cycle) .
𝑇
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos∅ ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇
0

𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos∅
2
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos∅
√2√2

𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍

𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 𝒁 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅

So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but also on the
cosine of the phase angle φ between them. The quantity cos ∅ is called the power factor.

Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive.

In that case, φ = 0, cos φ = 1.

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 There is maximum power dissipation.

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:

If the circuit contains only an inductor or capacitor, we know that the phase difference between
voltage and current is π/2. Therefore, cos π/2 = 0,

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0 ,no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is
referred to as wattless current.

Wattless current: The current in an ac circuit is said to be wattles current when the average power
consumed in such circuit corresponds to zero.
 21

Case (iii) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit:

At resonance Xc – XL= 0, so Xc = XL

and φ = 0.

Therefore, cosφ = 1

and. 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑍 ,That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.

Or

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (ie , purely resistive circuit )

Case (iv) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit,

(𝐗 𝐂 − 𝑿𝑳 )
∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝑹

. So, φ may be non-zero in a LR or RC or LCR circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in
the resistor.

DAMPED AND UNDAMPED OSCILLATIONS

If the circuit does not have any resistance no dissipation of energy will take place and
amplitude of oscillations produced will remain constant .Such oscillations are called undamped
oscillations .But in reality even if the resistance were zero ,the total energy of the system would
not remain constant .It is radiated away from the system in the form of electromagnetic waves
.Due to finite resistance in the circuit,the amplitude goes on decreasing as a small amount of
electric energy is dissipated in the form of heat during each oscillation .Such oscillations are
called damped oscillations .

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS UNDAMPED OSCILLATIONS

• The oscillations whose amplitude • In oscillation if its amplitude

goes on decreasing with time are doesn’t change with time then
called damped frequency. This they are called Undamped
happen because of the friction. oscillation.
• Energy loss in the form of heat This Undamped oscillations are only
possible if friction is not present.
Energy constant
 22

Q. Describe briefly, with the help of a labelled diagram , the construction and working principle
of a step up transformer.

Write any two sources of energy loss in a transformer.

Deduce the expression for the secondary to primary voltage in terms of the number of turns in
the two coils. In an ideal transformer , how is this ratio related to the currents in the two coils ?

The device which converts a low voltage to a high voltage or a high voltage to a low voltage. The
transformer which converts low voltage to high voltage is called step up transformer and that
which converts high voltage to low voltage is called step down transformer.

PRINCIPLE

It works on mutual induction on the basis of electromagnetic induction. If two coils are coupled
and when current or magnetic flux is changed through one of the two coils ,then induced emf is
produced in the other coil.

CONSTRUCTION

It has two separate coils wound on a closed laminated soft iron core .It is closed so that
it gives a closed path for the magnetic lines of force .Soft iron core is used as it is
ferromagnetic substance ,has high permeability, concentrates magnetic lines of force
and reduces the loss of flux .Primary coil is the input coil and secondary coil is the
output coil.

Transformers are two types

STEP UP TRANSFORMER

The transformer which converts low voltage to high voltage is called step up
transformer.On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil
than the primary coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than
the applied voltage across the primary coil .
 23

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

The transformer which converts high voltage to low voltage is called step down
transformer. A step down transformer has less turns on the secondary coil that the
primary coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is less the applied voltage
across the primary coil .

THEORY

A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are wound on a soft-
iron core.

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces an
alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it. The value of this
emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary. The soft iron core is capable of coupling
the whole magnetic flux generated in the primary coil with the secondary coil .

𝑁𝑃 -- No of turns in the primary coil

𝑁𝑆 -- No of turns in the secondary coil

∅ -- magnetic flux in each turn in the core at time t due to the current in the primary
when the voltage 𝑉𝑃 is applied.

Then the induced emf or voltage 𝐸𝑆 , in the secondary with Ns turns is

𝑑∅
𝐸𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆
𝑑𝑡

The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.

𝑑∅
𝐸𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
 24

But 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆
𝑑∅
𝑉𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆 𝑑𝑡

𝑑∅
𝑉𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
𝑽𝑺 𝑁𝑆 𝑁
= Where 𝑁𝑆 = 𝐾 -Transformation ratio
𝑽𝑷 𝑁𝑃 𝑃

the above relation has been obtained using three assumptions:

(i) the primary resistance and current are small;

(ii) (ii) the same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux
escapes from the core, and
(iii) the secondary current is small.

For an ideal transformer

A transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is
equal to the power output, and since 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼

𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆

𝐼𝑃 𝑉𝑆
=
𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑃

𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺
= =
𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷

EFFICIENCY
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺
EFFICIENCY = 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
= 𝑽𝑷 𝑰𝑷

In step up transformer , 𝑵𝑺 > 𝑵𝑷

𝑽𝑺 > 𝑽𝑷 and 𝑰𝑺 < 𝑰𝑷

Step up transformer increases the voltage.

In step down transformer , 𝑵𝑺 < 𝑵𝑷

𝑽𝑺 < 𝑽𝑷 and 𝑰𝑺 > 𝑰𝑷

Step down transformer decreases the voltage, but increases the current.

Laminated core: The core of a transformer is laminated to reduce the energy losses due to eddy
currents,so that its efficiency may remain nearly 100%.

A transformer is assumed to be 100% efficiency

Input power = output power

 25

𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆

USES OF TRANSFORMER

The main application of Transformer is to Step up ( Increase) or Step down (Decrease)

the level of Voltage.

• It can rise or lower the level of level of Voltage or Current (when voltage increases,
current decreases and vice versa because P =V x I, and Power is same ) in an AC Circuit.

• It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or resistance in an AC

circuit. It can thus act as an impedance transferring device.

• It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.

• Step down transformer is used for obtaining large currents for electric welding and for
melting the metals in the induction furnace.

• Step up transformer is used for the production of Xrays

• Small transformers are used in radio sets , televisions ,telephones , loudspeakers etc.

ENERGY LOSS IN TRANSFORMER

But in actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:

(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to
primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air
gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils
one over the other
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and
so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R). In high current, low voltage
windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core
and causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a laminated core.
(iv) (iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears
as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low
hysteresis loss

NOTE

The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is
done with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so
that current is reduced and consequently, the I 2R loss is cut down). It is then
transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near the consumers. There the
voltage is stepped down. It is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and
utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.

• Primary wire of a step up transformer is made up of thick wire to adjust the resistance
since current is high .Secondary coil of a step down transformer is made of thick wire
 26

• High voltage is required for long distance transmission because P = VI ie for high
voltage , less current ,then less heat is dissipated ( 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 ).
• When output voltage increases, the output current automatically decreases to keep the
power same. Thus there is no violation of conservation of energy in a step up
transformer.

Advantages of ac over dc:

1. We all know that we got ac supply in our homes and we got this supply by transmitting
ac over long distances. AC can be transmitted using step up transformers but direct
current or dc can not be transmitted by this method.

2. The ac is easy to generate than dc.

3. It is cheaper to generate ac than dc.

4. The ac generators have higher efficiency than dc.

5. The loss of energy during transmission is negligible for ac.

6. The ac can be easily converted into dc.

7. The variation of ac can easily be done using transformers either step up or step down.

8. The value or magnitude of ac can be decreased easily without loss of excess of energy.
This can be done by using choke coil.

DISADVANTAGES OF AC OVER DC
1. First disadvantage is that the shock of the ac is attractive but the shock of dc is repulsive.
2. At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with ac than dc.
3. In the processes like electro refining, electroplating etc. , one cannot use the ac. In these
processes, only dc is used.