(a) Define the term information and state various units of information.

Information refers to the data that is processed and has meaning or relevance. In communication
systems, information is a measure of uncertainty reduced when a message is received. The term is
often quantified using the concept of entropy in information theory. Units of information include bits
(binary digits), nats (natural units using logarithms to base e), and Hartleys (logarithms to base 10).
One bit represents the information content of an event that has a probability of 0.5. Information is a
key concept in data transmission, storage, and encoding. Shannon introduced the mathematical
model for quantifying information content.
(b) Define S/N ratio in analog communication system.

The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N or SNR) in analog communication is a measure that compares the level
of the desired signal to the level of background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise
power, often expressed in decibels (dB). Mathematically, it is given by S/N = Ps/Pn, where Ps is the
signal power and Pn is the noise power. A higher SNR indicates a cleaner and more reliable signal. In
analog systems, SNR affects the fidelity and clarity of the received signal. Improving SNR leads to
better communication quality and reduced error rates.

(c) What is the necessary condition for an IMPATT to produce oscillations?

An IMPATT (Impact Avalanche Transit-Time) diode is a high-frequency microwave device that generates
oscillations based on avalanche breakdown and transit time effects. The necessary condition for an
IMPATT to produce oscillations is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be a multiple of 2π
radians, and the negative resistance provided by the diode must overcome the losses in the circuit. This
is achieved by biasing the diode beyond its breakdown voltage, causing carrier multiplication
(avalanche) and delayed current due to carrier transit. These conditions create a phase shift and
negative resistance, leading to sustained oscillations.

(d) With the help of neat diagrams, explain the principle of radiation in antennas.

The principle of radiation in antennas is based on the acceleration of charge carriers, typically
electrons, which produce electromagnetic waves. When an alternating current flows through a
conductor like a dipole antenna, charges oscillate back and forth. This oscillation creates a
timevarying electric and magnetic field around the antenna. These fields propagate away from the
antenna as electromagnetic radiation. The antenna acts as a transducer that converts electrical
signals into radio waves and vice versa. Radiation occurs effectively when the antenna length is a
multiple of half the wavelength. Diagrams typically show current distribution and field lines radiating
outward.

(e) What do you mean by pulse modulation?

Pulse modulation is a technique used to encode information by varying the characteristics of pulses in a
signal. It is widely used in digital communication systems. There are several types of pulse modulation:
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), where the amplitude of pulses is varied; Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), where the width of each pulse is varied according to the signal; Pulse Position Modulation
(PPM), where the position of the pulse varies; and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), where the analog
signal is sampled and quantized into a digital code. Pulse modulation provides better noise immunity
and is used in modern communication.

(f) Explain RRC filters.

RRC stands for Root Raised Cosine filter. It is used in digital communication systems to shape the
transmitted signal and reduce intersymbol interference (ISI). The RRC filter is a matched filter formed
by the square root of the Raised Cosine (RC) filter, typically used at both the transmitter and receiver
ends. When two RRC filters are cascaded, the result is an overall Raised Cosine response. The roll-off
factor (α) controls the excess bandwidth. The RRC filter is essential in systems like QPSK and QAM,
 helping achieve efficient spectrum usage while maintaining signal clarity by minimizing ISI and
maximizing bandwidth efficiency.

(g) Define sampling of analog signals.

Sampling is the process of converting a continuous-time analog signal into a discrete-time signal by
taking measurements at regular intervals. This is the first step in digitizing an analog signal.
According to the Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
maximum frequency component of the analog signal to avoid aliasing. The result of sampling is a
series of values that can be processed or transmitted digitally. Common applications include audio
processing, image conversion, and digital communication. Proper sampling preserves the essential
information of the original signal while enabling digital processing and transmission.

(h) Explain how a tunnel diode can be used as an amplifier.

A tunnel diode is a type of diode with negative resistance characteristics due to quantum tunneling.
In the negative resistance region of its I-V characteristic, an increase in voltage results in a

decrease in current. This unique property allows tunnel diodes to amplify signals. When connected in
an appropriate circuit configuration, such as a resonant LC circuit, a tunnel diode can sustain
oscillations and amplify small signals. The device is particularly useful in high-frequency applications
such as microwave oscillators and amplifiers. Its fast response and low noise characteristics make it
suitable for use in RF and microwave amplification.
2(a) Explain square law diode modulation method for AM generation

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a technique in which the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave
is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating (message) signal. One simple and
widely studied method for generating an AM signal is the square-law diode modulation technique.

In this method, the non-linear characteristics of a diode are exploited. A square law device like a
diode has an output current (i) that is proportional to the square of the input voltage (v), i.e.,
i = av + bv²,
where a and b are constants depending on the device characteristics.

Working Principle:

1. The input to the diode is a combination of the carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos(ωc t) and the
message signal m(t).

2. The input signal is:

3. When this is passed through the square law device, the output contains several terms due to
squaring:

o A DC term (ignored),

o The message signal m(t) (low frequency),

o The carrier Ac cos(ωc t),

o The product term m(t)Ac cos(ωc t) (which represents the modulated AM signal),

o And higher frequency components (filtered out).

Output Signal:

After passing through a band-pass filter centered at the carrier frequency ωc, we obtain the AM
signal:
s(t) = Ac cos(ωc t) + m(t)Ac cos(ωc t)
This is the standard form of AM with the carrier and sidebands.

Advantages:

 Simple circuit.

 Requires only passive components (diode and filter).

Limitations:

 Only suitable for low-power applications.

 Inefficient for high-frequency, high-power transmission.

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is a type of pulse modulation where the position of a pulse relative
to the reference is varied according to the instantaneous value of the message signal. Unlike Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM), in PPM the amplitude and width remain constant.

Generation of PPM:

1. Start with a PAM signal:

o First, the analog signal is sampled using a sample-and-hold circuit.

o The sampled values are used to generate a PAM signal.

2. Use a monostable multivibrator:

o The PAM signal is applied to a monostable multivibrator that triggers a pulse after a
delay proportional to the amplitude of the input.

3. Output is the PPM signal:

o Each pulse in the PPM signal occurs at a time delay proportional to the amplitude of
the sampled message signal.

Advantages:

 Better noise immunity than PAM.

 Constant amplitude reduces power variation.

Disadvantages:

 Requires synchronization at the receiver.

 Complex circuitry for modulation and demodulation.

2(c) Explain different forms of antenna arrays

An antenna array is a group of antennas working together to transmit or receive radio waves more
effectively. By controlling the amplitude and phase of the signal at each antenna, the radiation
pattern of the array can be shaped.

Types of Antenna Arrays:

1. Broadside Array:

o Elements are placed parallel to each other.

o Maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of the array.

o Used in TV broadcast.

2. End-Fire Array:

o Elements are arranged such that maximum radiation is along the axis of the array.

o More directional than broadside.

o Elements are placed end to end in a single line.

o Common in base station antennas for vertical polarization.

4. Parasitic Array (Yagi-Uda):

o Only one element (the driven element) is directly fed.

o Other elements (reflector and directors) influence the radiation pattern.

o Used in TV antennas.

5. Phased Array:

o Phase of the signal to each element is varied.

o Beam direction can be changed electronically without physically moving the

o Used in radar and modern communication systems.

Applications:

 Radar systems.

 Satellite communication.

 Wireless communication and broadcasting.

2(d) Explain the method for generation and detection of BFSK (Binary Frequency Shift Keying)

Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) is a digital modulation technique where the frequency of the
carrier signal is changed according to the digital input signal. Two different frequencies are used for
binary 1 and binary 0.

Generation of BFSK:

1. Digital Input:

o Input binary data (e.g., 1011001) is fed into a modulator.

2. Two Frequency Oscillators:

o One oscillator generates frequency f1 for binary ‘1’.

o Another generates frequency f2 for binary ‘0’.

3. Switching Mechanism:

o A multiplexer or switch selects the appropriate oscillator output depending on the

4. BFSK Signal:

o The output is a waveform alternating between f1 and f2, corresponding to the

1. Coherent Detection:

o Requires a local oscillator synchronized with the received carrier.

o Two bandpass filters centered at f1 and f2.

o Outputs are passed to envelope detectors.

o The higher output indicates the transmitted bit.

2. Non-Coherent Detection:

o Uses envelope detection without carrier synchronization.

o Simpler but less accurate.

Advantages:

 Less susceptible to amplitude noise than ASK.

 Simple to implement.

Disadvantages:

 Requires more bandwidth than ASK or PSK.

 Less power efficient than PSK.

3(a) Write a short note on linear and ground antenna.

Linear Antennas:

A linear antenna is a type of antenna in which the elements (typically metallic conductors) are
arranged along a straight line. This is one of the most basic and commonly used antenna
configurations, often seen in applications such as radio transmission, television broadcasting, and
wireless communication.

Examples of linear antennas:

 Dipole Antenna

 Monopole Antenna

 Yagi-Uda Antenna (has a linear structure of elements)

Characteristics:

1. Polarization: They generally exhibit linear polarization, meaning the electric field vector
remains in one plane.

2. Radiation Pattern: Linear antennas produce a radiation pattern that is strongest

3. Length: The efficiency and resonance depend on the length of the antenna, typically related
to the wavelength (λ) of the transmitted/received signal (e.g., half-wave dipole = λ/2).
 4. Frequency Range: Linear antennas are well-suited for VHF, UHF, and microwave frequency
ranges.

Applications:

 Used in AM/FM radios

 TV broadcasting

 Cellular base stations

 Radar systems

Ground Antennas:

A ground antenna (or ground plane antenna) is a type of monopole antenna that uses the Earth (or
a metallic ground plane) as a reflective surface. It typically consists of a vertical radiating element
mounted perpendicular to a ground plane.

Key Features:

1. Monopole Structure: Consists of a single vertical element and uses the ground as a mirror
image to create the radiation pattern.

2. Ground Plane: The ground plane can be natural (Earth) or artificial (metallic surface or
radials).

3. Radiation Pattern: The radiation is primarily horizontal, ideal for terrestrial communication.

4. Impedance: Typically designed for 50 or 75 ohm systems, influenced by the ground plane.

Applications:

 Used in mobile communications (car antennas)

 Shortwave and HF radios

 Broadcasting towers

 Amateur radio
Comparison:

Feature Linear Antenna Ground Antenna

Structure Straight line (dipole, Yagi) Vertical element with ground

Ground Plane Use Not always required Essential for operation

Radiation Pattern Bidirectional or directional Omnidirectional (horizontal)

Usage TV, RF, base stations Mobile, radio, HF communication

3(b) What do you understand by ASK, PSK and FSK system? Explain modulation and demodulation
of BPSK system.

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying):

ASK is a digital modulation scheme where the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied according to the
binary data. A binary ‘1’ is represented by a high amplitude, and a binary ‘0’ by a lower amplitude or
zero.

 Advantages: Simple to implement.

 Disadvantages: Very susceptible to noise and distortion.

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the binary data. Two different
frequencies represent binary ‘0’ and ‘1’.

 Advantages: More noise-resistant than ASK.

 Applications: Used in modems, telemetry, and caller ID systems.

PSK (Phase Shift Keying):

PSK changes the phase of the carrier wave to represent binary data. A common version is BPSK
(Binary Phase Shift Keying).

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):

Modulation:

In BPSK, the carrier phase is shifted by 180° based on the binary input.

 Binary ‘1’ = 0° phase shift

 Binary ‘0’ = 180° phase shift

Demodulation:

At the receiver:

 A coherent demodulator multiplies the received signal with a reference carrier.

 Then, it uses a low-pass filter and a decision circuit to recover the binary data.

Advantages:

 Simple and efficient for binary communication.

 Resistant to noise compared to ASK.

Disadvantages:

 Requires synchronization of phase (coherent detection).

Applications:

 Satellite communication

 Wireless LANs (802.11)

 RFID systems
3(c) Discuss Shannon Hartley Theorem and its applications.

Shannon-Hartley Theorem:

The Shannon-Hartley theorem defines the maximum data rate (channel capacity) for a
communication channel with a given bandwidth in the presence of noise.

Formula:

Interpretation:

 Increasing bandwidth or improving signal quality (SNR) increases the maximum data rate.

 There's a limit to how much data can be sent error-free through a noisy channel.

Applications:

1. Communication System Design: Helps determine how much data can be transmitted
reliably.

2. Bandwidth Allocation: Guides telecom providers in optimizing bandwidth.

3. Coding Techniques: Motivates the use of error-correcting codes to approach channel

4. Digital Communication: Applied in DSL, optical fiber, satellite communication, etc.

5. Wireless Technologies: Influences 4G/5G design with limited spectrum and noise-prone
environments.
3(d) Define noise figure. Derive the expression for noise figure.

Definition of Noise Figure (NF):

Noise figure is a measure of degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as the signal passes
through a system or device. It indicates how much noise is added by the system.

Where:

 Te: Equivalent noise temperature

 T0=290K = Standard reference temperature

 Evaluating receiver performance (lower NF = better)

 Used in amplifiers, mixers, and radio receivers

 Important in satellite, radar, and wireless system design