Computer Networks

Unit-1
Topics
● Introduction
● Network hardware
● Network Software
● Reference models
OSI
TCP/IP
● Physical Layer
•Guided Transmission media: twisted pairs
•coaxial cable, fiber optics
•Wireless transmission
Introduction
● A collection of Autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology is called computer networks.
● Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
● The connections need not to be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves,
infrared, and communicational satellites can also used.
● Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms.
● The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various
devices.
Uses of Computer Networks
○ Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.
○ Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the
machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
○ Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users.
For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees
use for daily communication.
○ E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.
Features Of Computer Networks

○ Communication speed
○ File sharing
○ Back up and Roll back is easy
○ Software and Hardware sharing
○ Security
○ Scalability
○ Reliability
Communication speed

Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example, we can do video conferencing,
email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing

File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to share the files with each
other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main
server.

Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to
install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.
Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and
applications.

Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that
we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data of
the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can be
overcome by using the routing or switching devices.

Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware
failure.
Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

● Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to
enable communication and data exchange.
● Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers, Servers,
Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
● Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over a
network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
● Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
● Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network
Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
● IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device
on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.
● DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable
domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.
● Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access
and other security threats.
Types of Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:
● Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of Computer
Network Architecture in which Nodes can be Servers or Clients. Here, the server
node can manage the Client Node Behaviour.
● Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is not any
concept of a Central Server. Each device is free for working as either client or
server.
Physical Components of Computer Networks
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some important network
components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to
install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

NIC
○ NIC stands for network interface card.
○ NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
○ It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s
○ The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to
identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only
memory).
Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer requests for
some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to
the entire network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be
dropped.

The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use
of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more advanced
features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch
delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch
does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to
be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It
increases the speed of the network.
Router
○ A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is
used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
○ A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
○ A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
○ It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Modem
○ A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing telephone
line.
○ A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the
motherboard.
○ It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.
Cables and Connectors
Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

○ Twisted pair cable

○ Coaxial cable
○ Fibre-optic cable
Network Hardware
To design a network is a combination of Hardware and Software.

Here we discuss about Hardware part

Transmission technology and scale

Transmission Technology
There are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use:
Broadcast links and
Point-to-point links
Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from the source
to the destination on a network made up of point-to-point links, short messages,
called packets in certain contexts, may have to first visit one or more
intermediate machines.
Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.
A Broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the machines
on the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others
Types of Computer Networks
According to the communication requirements, multiple types of network connections are
available. The most basic type of network classification depends on the network's geographical
coverage.
Below mentioned are different types of networks:

● PAN (Personal Area Network)

● LAN (Local Area Network)
● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● WAN (Wide Area Network)
PAN
○ Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
○ Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer
devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
○ Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal
area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

○ Wired Personal Area Network (wireless technologies such as WiFi,

Bluetooth)
○ Wireless Personal Area Network (is created by using the USB.)
LAN
○ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to
each other in a small area such as building, office.
○ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair,
coaxial cable, etc.
○ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such
as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
○ The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local
Area Network.
○ Local Area Network provides higher security.
MAN

○ A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
○ Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
○ In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
○ The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
○ It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
WAN

○ A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries.
○ A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
○ A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
○ The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
○ A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
CN Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender
and receiver) through lines of connection.

● Bus topology
● Ring topology
● Star topology
● Mesh topology
● Tree topology
● Hybrid topology
Bus topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to
keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes,
as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are
connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all others nodes are connected to
the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to
the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Mesh Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or
devices. All the network nodes are connected to each
other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the

Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the
data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the
broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The
network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as
mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
Tree topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected
to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three
levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of Advantages of Hybrid Topology
two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one 1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble
department ring topology is used and in another star shooting is easy.
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in 2. Effective.
Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology). 3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the
topologies included 1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Network Software
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation, and
operation and monitoring of computer networks.

Functions of Network Software

● Helps to set up and install computer networks
● Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
● Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
● Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
● Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
● Enables network virtualizations
Protocal Hierarchies
● A protocol is a standard which controls or
enables the connection, communication,
and data transfer between computing
endpoints. Protocols can be implemented
by hardware, software, or a combination of
the two.
● Generally to reduce the complexity of
network software design, Most networks
are organized as a stack of layers, one on
the top of another. The number of layers
and their names vary from network to
network. Each layer has a specified
function and adheres to specified protocols.
Thus we obtain a stack of protocols.
● The above figure represents communication between Device A and
Device B.
● The data stream from one device to the other is not sent directly but has
to pass through a number of layers.
● The layers in the same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols
for communication.
● Between each adjacent layer is an interface that defines the services that
are being offered by a lower layer to the next higher layer.
● The dotted arrows depict virtual communication between peer layers,
while the solid arrows represent the physical communications between
the adjacent layers.
Network Reference Models
A computer network connects two or more devices together to share
information and services. Multiple networks connected together form an
internetwork.
Internetworking present challenges - interoperating between products from
different manufacturers requires consistent standards. Network reference
models were developed to address these challenges. A network reference
model serves as a blueprint, detailing how communication between network
devices should occur.
The two most recognized network reference models are:
1. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
2. The TCP/IP model
OSI Reference Model

OSI is acronym of Open System Interface. This model is developed by

the International organization of Standardization ISO and therefore
also referred as ISO-OSI Model.
The OSI model consists of seven layers as shown in the following
diagram. Each layer has a specific function, however each layer
provide services to the layer above.
 Physical Layer
The Physical layer is responsible for the following activities:
● Activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical connection.
● Defining voltages and data rates needed for transmission.
● Converting digital bits into electrical signal.
● Deciding whether the connection is simplex, half duplex or full duplex.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer performs the following functions:
● Performs synchronization and error control for the information which is to be
transmitted over the physical link.
● Enables error detection, and adds error detection bits to the data which are to be
transmitted.
Network Layer
Following are the functions of Network Layer:
● To route the signals through various channels to the other end.
● To act as the network controller by deciding which route data should take.
● To divide the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer performs the following functions:
● It decides if the data transmission should take place on parallel paths or single path.
● It performs multiplexing, splitting on the data.
● It breaks the data groups into smaller units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.
NOTE: The Transport Layer guarantees transmission of data from one end to other end.
Session Layer
The Session layer performs the following functions:
● Manages the messages and synchronizes conversations between two different
applications.
● It controls logging on and off, user identification, billing and session management.

Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer performs the following functions:
● This layer makes it sure that the information is delivered in such a form that the
receiving system will understand and use it.
Application Layer
The Application layer performs the following functions:

● It provides different services such as manipulation of information in several

ways, retransferring the files of information, distributing the results etc.
● The functions such as LOGIN or password checking are also performed by
the application layer.
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP model is practical model and
is used in the Internet. TCP/IP is
acronym of Transmission Control
Protocol and Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model combines the two
layers Physical and Data link layer
into one layer i.e. Host-to-Network
layer. The following diagram shows
the various layers of TCP/IP model:
Application Layer:
This layer is same as that of the OSI model and performs the following functions:

● It provides different services such as manipulation of information in several

ways, retransferring the files of information, distributing the results etc.
● The functions such as LOGIN or password checking are also performed by the
application layer.

Protocols used: TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DN, HTTP, NNTP are the protocols

employed in this layer.

Transport Layer:
It does the same functions as that of transport layer in OSI model. Here are the
key points regarding transport layer:

● It uses TCP and UDP protocol for end to end transmission.

● TCP is reliable and connection oriented protocol.
● TCP also handles flow control.
● The UDP is not reliable and a connection less protocol also does not perform
flow control.

Protocols used: TCP/IP and UDP protocols are employed in this layer.
Internet Layer:
The function of this layer is to allow the host to insert packets into network and then make them
travel independently to the destination. However, the order of receiving the packet can be different
from the sequence they were sent.
Protocols used: Internet Protocol IP is employed in Internet layer.

Host-to-Network Layer:
This is the lowest layer in TCP/IP model. The host has to connect to network using some protocol, so
that it can send IP packets over it. This protocol varies from host to host and network to network.
Protocols used: ARPANET, SATNET, LAN, packet radio are the protocols which are used in this layer.
Physical Layer
● The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical representation
of the system.
● It consists of various network components such as power plugs, connectors,
receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends data bits from one
device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s).
● The physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s
are encoded in a signal).
● The physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the unstructured
raw data streams over a physical medium.
Functions Performed by Physical Layer

The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the Physical Layer of the OSI Model –

❏ The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send per second).
❏ It performs the Synchronization of bits.
❏ It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
❏ It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology through which we can connect the
devices with each other).
❏ It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
❏ It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-Point configuration.
❏ It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and transmission medium.
❏ It has a protocol data unit in bits.
❏ Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
❏ This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware layer is responsible
for all the physical connection establishment and processing too).
❏ It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of converting the data into
radio waves by adding the information to an electrical or optical nerve signal.
❏ It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be forwarded from one port
(sender port) to the leading destination port.
Line Configuration

● Point-to-Point configuration: In Point-to-Point configuration, there is a line

(link) that is fully dedicated to carrying the data between two devices.
● Multi-Point configuration: In a Multi-Point configuration, there is a line (link)
through which multiple devices are connected.
Modes of Transmission Medium

1. Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can transmit the data, and the
other device can only receive the data. Example- Input from keyboards, monitors, TV broadcasting,
Radio broadcasting, etc.
2. Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can send and receive the data
but only one at a time not simultaneously. Examples- Walkie-Talkie, Railway Track, etc.
3. Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the data simultaneously.
Examples- Telephone Systems, Chatting applications, etc.
Physical Layer Protocols Examples

Typically, a combination of hardware and software programming makes up the physical layer. It consists of several protocols that
control data transmissions on a network. The following are some examples of Layer 1 protocols:

● Ethernet with 1000BASE-T.

● Ethernet with 1000BASE-SX.
● Ethernet at 100BaseT.
● Synchronous Digital Hierarchy/Optical Synchronisation.
● Physical-layer variations in 802.11.
● Bluetooth.
● Networking for controllers.
● U.S. Serial Bus.
Guided Transmission media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

● Twisted pairs
● Coaxial cable
● Fiber optics
Twisted pair

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as
compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
 Types of Twisted pair:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair

2. Shielded Twisted Pair

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair: An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in

telecommunication. Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair
cable:
● Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
● Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
● Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
● Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
● Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

○ It is cheap.
○ Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
○ It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

○ This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair:

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

○ The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
○ An installation of STP is easy.
○ It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
○ It has a higher attenuation.
○ It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

○ It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

○ It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial cable

○ Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
○ The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
○ It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
○ The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh.
The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
○ The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from the
EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

○ The data can be transmitted at high speed.

○ It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
○ It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

○ It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

○ If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fiber optics
○ Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
○ Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
○ The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other types of
wiring.
○ Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

○ Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of
the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
○ Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower
refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through
the fibre.
○ Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre
strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

○ Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries
more data as compared to copper cable.
○ Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a
higher speed.
○ Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper cable.
○ Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while
it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
○ Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper
cable.
UnGuided Transmission or Wireless transmission

○ An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also
known as wireless transmission.
○ In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

● Radio waves
● Microwaves
● Infrared
Radio waves

○ Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
○ Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
○ The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
○ In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending
antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
○ An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:

○ A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
○ An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

○ Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
○ Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
○ Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

○ Terrestrial microwave
○ Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial microwave:

○ Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission
antenna to another.
○ Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
○ Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
○ In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
○ It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of each other.