Archives of Current Research International

18(2): 1-11, 2019; Article no.ACRI.50763

ISSN: 2454-7077

Review of Microgrids and Associated Protective

Systems
Maruf A. Aminu1*
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analyzed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/ACRI/2019/v18i230132
Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Faisal, Lecturer, Institute of Business Studies and Leadership, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, KP, Pakistan.
Reviewers:
(1) Himanshu Dehra, India.
(2) Bankole Adebanji, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.
(3) Rajinder Tiwari, Jammu University, India.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle3.com/review-history/50763

Received 02 June 2019

Review Article Accepted 10 August 2019
Published 20 August 2019

ABSTRACT

In this century, the human appetite for electrical energy is the highest in history. This high demand
for electricity results in increased need for power generation. The current power network is put
under pressure to ensure high-quality generation, transmission and distribution of power. The
network, in most countries, is aging – requiring higher resources in order to satisfy present-day
challenges, in addition to the need to minimize power losses and optimize power production.
These challenges have necessitated innovative power production techniques, such as the
microgrid. The operation of microgrid comes with emerging challenges. This paper articulates and
reviews some of the most noticeable challenges of utility and microgrid operations. The paper also
presents some of the recent proposals for microgrid protection, as well as the limitations
associated with these proposals.

Keywords: Microgrid; protection; distributed generation; relay.

1. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION generation, transmission and distribution

networks are challenging security, dependability
Concerns for primary energy availability and and power supply quality. To improve the power
aging infrastructure of current electrical supply, distribution grids are being transformed
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: Email: maruf.aminu@gmail.com;

 Aminu; ACRI, 18(2): 1-11, 2019; Article no.ACRI.50763

from passive to active networks to facilitate 2. CURRENT POWER SYSTEM AND ITS
access to distributed generation (DG); enable CHALLENGES
local energy demand management, interacting
with end-users through smart metering systems; In the contemporary power system, bulk energy
and to apply the transmission technologies such production starts from centralized large
as dynamic control techniques to the distribution generating systems. The power generated is
grid, to guarantee a higher general level of power then transmitted, mostly over long distances, to
security, quality and reliability [1]. the distribution network where the energy is
consumed. The distribution network is a low-
A microgrid is a power system which comprises voltage (LV) or medium-voltage (MV) network
of small (micro-), distributed generators, energy and radial in nature. Abnormal conditions such as
storage systems and controllable loads run as a faults could occur at various stages of the system,
sole controlled and coordinated piece so that it necessitating incorporation of control and
operates in a grid-connected or autonomous protective devices in the network. The
(islanded) mode [2]. The primary interest of transmission network links the distribution
microgrid is supply of high-quality, unfailing and network (consumer end) to the generation
sustainable power to local consumers. This leads (producer end), but introduces power losses
to need for bidirectional power flow. This is which results in economic loss to the utility and
contrary to the main purpose of DG which poor quality supply to the consumer [3,4,5].
focuses on increasing unidirectional availability of Increasing energy demand and need for
power without focusing on the satisfaction of a sustainable power generation drive growing
local load. Fig. 1 depicts a simplified architecture deployment of renewable energy resources in
of a typical microgrid connected to the utility at form of microgrid. This increase in deployment of
Point of Common Coupling (PCC). distributed generation changes the natural
topology of the distribution network from radial to
There are numerous research efforts aimed at mesh or ring [6,7,8,9,10]. Consequently, the LV
full-scale deployment of microgrids. These efforts distribution network can no longer be considered
are largely driven by governments and corporate a passive appendage to the transmission
bodies, resulting in classified research data and network – It becomes an active distribution
findings. This paper presents an up-to-date network; a distributed generation. The impact of
results of research efforts in microgrid protection DGs on power balance and grid frequency may
systems. become obvious in the future [4].

CENTRAL GENERATION
(UTILITY) ESS

DG

CONTROLLABLE
TRANSMISSION LOAD
NETWORK
MICROGRID

(PCC) DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

DG = Distributed Generation
ESS = Energy Storage System LOAD

Fig. 1. A simplified utility-microgrid architecture

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 Aminu; ACRI, 18(2): 1-11, 2019; Article no.ACRI.50763

This topology change, converter-interfacing of load current. Because penetration of DG alters

microsources based on power electronics (PE) contribution of the grid to the fault current
and the imminent bidirectional power flow render magnitude, the normal operation of existing
the contemporary protective devices such as protective system is potentially disrupted [10,12,
overcurrent relays (OCRs) inappropriate for 1,13,14,15,16], see Fig. 2.
optimal system operation, particularly under
various control strategies and operating modes 2.2 Sympathetic Tripping
[1,3,11].
Sympathetic tripping, also termed false tripping,
In general, challenges related to protection can is a selectivity problem and occurs when a
be grouped into two categories: generator installed on a feeder contributes to the
fault current in an adjacent feeder connected to
 Fault detection problems. the same substation [15,17,18,19], see Fig. 3a.
 Selectivity problems. 2.3 Loss of Fuse-recloser Coordination
2.1 Blinding of Protection Protective system for overhead distribution
feeders with automatic recloser is an efficient
This is a fault detection problem. Not only does way of protecting against un-sustained
connection of DG change the load flow in the disturbances and to minimize the frequency of
distribution grid but potentially also alters supply interruptions. Coordination of reclosers
magnitude of fault current whenever the grid is and lateral fuses ensures that permanent faults
disturbed. Some distribution grid protective are cleared selectively. Integration of DG to
systems detect onset of faulty grid situation by distribution feeders with automatic reclosers
discriminating a fault current from the normal causes several protection problems. Detection of

If = Ims + Igrid

CB1 CB2 If CB3

UTILITY
(Main grid)
Igrid

Ims
If = Fault current

MS
Fig. 2. Blinding effect of MS on CB1

a b

Fig. 3. Typical challenges associated with use of OCRs in distributed generation (a)
Sympathetic tripping, (b) Loss of fuse-recloser coordination

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fault current by the recloser is affected by contrast to contemporary power system where
contribution of current from the generator, power flow is unidirectional. It eases the
leading to fault detection problem. The integration of DG, renewable energy resource
coordination between reclosers or fuse and (RES), demand side integration (DSI) and energy
recloser can be lost which directly causes storage technologies. It also enables use of
selectivity problem [20,21,22,23], see Fig. 3b. intelligent electronic devices (IED) and
This is a selectivity problem. controllers, which conform to common client-
server protocol-based communication services
Other problems related to use of overcurrent based on uniform standards. The main
relays (OCRs) in microgrid include: functionality of a microgrid is to efficiently link
power generation with consumer demands,
 Islanding and Non-synchronized allowing both to decide how best to operate in
Reclosing. real-time [2-4].
 Disabling of automatic reclosing.
It is a group of interconnected DGs, loads and
3. MICROGRIDS AND FUTURE POWER energy storage units that co-operate in a manner
SYSTEMS that they are collectively treated by the grid as a
single controllable load or generator. It is usually
The ever-increasing human appetite for electric connected to the grid at the PCC, see Fig. 1.
power, changes in regulatory and operational DGs are connected to the distribution networks,
climates of contemporary electric utilities, and the mainly at MV and LV levels. DGs include
evolution of small generating units – including microsources (microgenerators) such as
photovoltaic, microturbines, fuel cells, and microturbines, fuel-cells and photovoltaic (PV)
internal combustion engines have opened new arrays together with storage devices, such as
opportunities for electricity users to generate flywheels, energy capacitors, batteries and
power at their premises. This makes distributed controllable loads e.g. electric vehicles [4].
generation (small power generators usually
located at sites where the energy they generate 4. CHALLENGES OF MICROGRID
is consumed) a promising option to meet growing OPERATION
customer needs for economic and reliable
electric power. This could make a consumer to One of the main challenges faced in microgrid
become a net producer of electricity. Organizing operation is related to large difference between
these distributed energy resources (generators, the fault current level in the grid-connected mode
energy storage and controllable loads) into a and the islanded mode [26], caused by the fact
microgrid has the potential to meet that the short circuit levels of converter-interfaced
environmental, regulatory, customer and utility microsources are typically controlled to not be
needs. Some of the features of microgrid that more than 2-3 times their rated capacities by
make it promising as a solution to the challenges their controllers [27]. Also, in a microgrid the
of meeting the foreseeable future energy control strategy such as P or Q control
demand include: determines the values of critical network
variables such as magnitudes and angles of
 High reliability – providing quality power to current and voltage. When the microgrid is in
consumers. grid-connected mode, the grid dictates the
 Potential for “plug-and-play” – addition of control; when it is in autonomous mode of
operation, operating conditions and operational
energy resources to the microgrid is
flexible. codes dictate its control. For the same fault
condition, the fault current or other parameters
 Capacity for seamless islanding – this
could differ under different control strategies.
helps ensure supply continuity in the event
Some of the challenges limiting full-scale
of fault on the utility [24].
deployment of microgrids include:
A microgrid is a “building block of smart grids” 1. Design of protection systems – due to:
[25]. A microgrid could be ac, dc or hybrid. It is
essentially a conversion of the passive ◦ Bidirectional power flow.
distribution network to an active network. ◦ Network topology change - meshed
An active distribution network facilitates network.
distributed decision-making and control, and the ◦ Converter interfacing – PE interfaced
power flows are bidirectional in the network, in microsources include controllers which

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limit current magnitudes, even during based on overcurrent protection include blinding
system stress. and vulnerability to communication failures. This
makes them less reliable and capital intensive.
2. Voltage and frequency control strategies –
power electronics (PE). 5.2 Protection Schemes Based on Voltage
3. Reliable islanded mode of operation – Measurement
small rotating inertia in PE interfaced
microsources (MSs). This results in low These schemes essentially utilize measurement
transient stability when the system is of voltage in protecting the microgrid from faults.
disturbed. This further causes inability to In 2006, Al-Nasseri et al. [33] reported a scheme
meet Low-Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT) that monitors and transforms output voltages of
and related grid codes. microsources to direct current quantities based
4. Seamless change from islanded to grid- on the d-q reference frame so that the scheme
connected mode and vice versa – could be used to protect the microgrid against
disconnection and reconnection incite both in-zone and out-of-zone faults. In 2009,
fluctuation in voltage as well as oscillation another protection scheme based on voltage
in frequency. measurement was reported by Loix et al. [34].
5. Seamless integration – this is related to The scheme utilizes the effect of fault types on
plug-and-play and peer-to-peer features. Park’s components of measured voltage. It could
6. Inadequate certainty in dispatch and be used to protect the microgrid from three
reserves – this is related to natural phase, two phase and one phase-to-earth faults.
intermittency of primary energy resource Its basic operation does not require com-
and relatively high cost of large storage munication links, but it requires communication
systems [2,28]. links for optimal operation. The most prominent
feature of this scheme in comparison with the
5. MICROGRID PROTECTION SYSTEMS one proposed by Al-Nasseri et al. [33] is that it is
IN LITERATURE versatile – that is, it could be used to protect all
configurations of microgrids.
Fig. 4 presents a graphical view of the basic
quantities associated with different protective 5.3 Current Differential Protection
systems for microgrids. Schemes
5.1 Overcurrent Protection Schemes Current differential scheme is a type of
protection for elements such as transformers,
Proposals for microgrid current magnitude buses, generators, lines and feeders. It
protection evolved from the popular utility-scale generally uses differential relay which works on
overcurrent protection. This is done by either the basis of Kirchhoff's current law. The law
modifying the magnitude of current or by adding states that the algebraic sum of currents entering
measurement of other quantities in order to solve and exiting a node equals zero [35]. This scheme
the problem of blinding of overcurrent. For operates when the differential between these
example, in 2006, Nikkhajoei and Lasseter [29, currents exceeds a pre-set value. One strength
30] proposed use of sequence quantities of this scheme is that it is not sensitive to
(negative- and zero-sequence) to distinguish bidirectional power flows and attenuation in
between line-to-line and line-to-ground faults. In magnitudes of fault current which typically occurs
2008, Best et al. [31] proposed a 3-stage scheme in islanded microgrids. In 2006, Nikkhajoei and
for overcurrent protection. In this technique, Lasseter [30] reported a procedure for microgrid
stage 1 detects the fault event using local protection using combination of differential
measurements; stage 2 activates inter-breaker protection and symmetrical components
communication; and stage 3 adjusts relay measurements. The proposal utilizes zero-
settings through a supervisory controller. In 2012, sequence and negative-sequence currents of the
Zamani et al. [32] developed an overcurrent microgrid to detect Single Line-to-Ground (SLG)
protection using relays with microprocessor for and Line-to-Line (LL) faults, respectively.
low-voltage microgrids protection against faults in Zeineldin et al. [36] reported a work on the
both islanded and grid-connected modes of future of microgrids in 2016 and expressed
operation. Operation of the proposed system is concern on two major challenges; protection
based on definite-time grading of relays in the and control of voltage/frequency. Consequently,
microgrid and requires communication links. The they proposed a scheme which employs
major drawbacks of these proposals which are differential relays at both ends of each line.

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Fig. 4. Block diagram showing the current state of microgrid protection schemes in literature

These relays, designed to operate in 50ms, could In 2008, Celli et al. [40] reported a distance relay
protect the microgrid in both grid-connected and scheme in order to detect grounded faults in
islanded operation modes. In 2010, Sortomme et distribution systems which have high penetration
al. [37] reported a protection scheme using of distributed generation. This proposal uses
synchronized phasor measurements and wavelet coefficients of the transient fault current
microprocessor relays for recognition of all kinds at critical points of the network. The proposed
of faults, including High Impedance Faults (HIFs). scheme operates without communication link or
They demonstrated that it provides robust synchronized measures. However, if communi-
protection when the relays are installed at the cation is used to enhance communication among
end of each microgrid line. In 2010, Parsai et al. the relays, the scheme provides robust protection
[38] reported a scheme called Power Line Carrier for the distribution network against ungrounded
(PLC). The scheme uses communication link to faults.
provide multiple levels of protection for meshed
microgrids. In 2011, a differential scheme was 5.5 Adaptive Protection Schemes
reported by Dewadasa et al. [39]. This scheme
Adaptive protection could alleviate the challenge
considers all the protection challenges such as
of protecting a microgrid in both modes of
bidirectional power flow as well as attenuation of
operation. In this scheme of protection, automatic
fault current level in islanded microgrids. The
change of relay settings is triggered whenever
system displays capability to protect the
the microgrid changes from one mode to the
microgrid in both modes of operation. One of the
other and vice versa. Typically, it modifies the
major contributions of this scheme is its potential
favored protective response to change as
to satisfactorily protect feeders and microsources
conditions of the system change in a manner
in a microgrid.
which is sufficiently timely through externally
generated control stimulus or signals.
5.4 Distance (Impedance) Protection
Schemes In 2006, Tumilty et al. [41] proposed an adaptive
scheme of protection which does not require
The principle of operation of a distance relay communication assistance. The proposal
(sometimes called impedance relay) differs from employed a voltage-based fault detection method
other forms of protection because its response is in discerning the typical voltage drop occasioned
not directly determined by current or voltage by over-load and short circuit events. In 2009,
magnitude but determined by the ratio of voltage- Oudalov and Fidigatti [42] proposed a novel
to-current or vice versa. Impedance relays are adaptive microgrid scheme employing digital
double actuating types, since one coil is relay and advanced communication link. The
energized by voltage while the other is energized proposal is based on a centralized topology
by current. A positive or pick-up torque is which determines the state (grid-connected or
produced by the current element while the islanded) of the microgrid and consequently
negative or reset torque is produced by the adapts protective settings accordingly. In 2011,
voltage element. The relay operates only when Dang et al. [43] employed Energy Storage (ES)
the V/I (impedance) ratio or I/V (admittance) ratio and isolation transformers to sense the mode of
falls below or above a preset value (or set value). microgrid. Thereafter, identification of the fault is

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implemented through comparison of zero- 5.6.2 Fault current sources (FCSs)

sequence current and a preset value. In 2012,
Khederzadeh [44] proposed an adaptive scheme As stated in 4, the typical short-circuit current
in which digital relay is efficiently used for level in a microgrid is restricted to about 2-3
protection of microgrids. In this scheme, relay times of the rated current because of controls in
settings are adapted depending on status of the PE-interfaced MSs. Fault current sources such
microgrid, i.e., utility grid-connected or islanded as energy storage devices (flywheels or batteries)
operation. can be employed to deliver supplementary short-
circuit level to the network [26]. In 2013, Oudalov
5.6 Protection Schemes Driven by et al. [1] reported a FCS for protection of
External Devices microgrid. In this scheme and whenever
operating conditions are normal, the FCS power
As stated in 4, the fundamental challenge facing circuit is inactive. Whenever fault occurs, the
microgrid protection is related to the wide network voltage typically drops, activating the
difference between fault current levels in the grid- FCS. The FCS tries to restore the nominal
connected and islanded modes [26]. network voltage through injection of fault current
Consequently, it becomes necessary to realize into the network. Usually, the fault current
adequate protection scheme which has the injected is sufficiently high to activate OC relay
capability to operate satisfactorily in both grid- trip logic which energizes a circuit breaker.
connected and islanded modes. Some methods
in literature have proposed modification of short- 5.7 Protection Based on Multi-agent
circuit level whenever the microgrid operation Schemes
changes mode. These systems can be classified
into two groups: In 2016, Hussain et al. [48] proposed an N-
version programming-based protective scheme
5.6.1 Fault current limiters (FCLs) for microgrids using multi-agent method.
Developed in MATLAB Simulink, the scheme has
FCLs are used to attenuate net contribution of all three protection versions namely, Clarke’s
MSs. FCL technique is capable of effectively transformation-based current protection, positive-
changing the short circuit current level to surpass sequence phase differential-based protection
the design limit of various system elements. In and conventional over-current-based protection.
2011, Ustun et al. [45] proposed design of a The software in this proposal determines the
microgrid protective scheme based on current decision about the type of fault and which of the
limiters. The scheme is communication-assisted three protection versions to deploy via a decision
and monitors the microgrid to update fault current tree process. The process depends on a truth
settings of relays according to system variations. table and a K-map for decision making. This
The proposed system dynamically responds to proposal applies to both balanced and
changes in the system including connection and unbalanced faults in both grid-connected and
disconnection of MSs. In 2012, Ghanbari and islanded modes. However, it suffers from
Farjah [46] proposed a novel FCL scheme using dependence on inter-agent link which makes the
resonant type solid-state fault current limiter system susceptible to communication failure and
(SSFCL) which exhibits very low impedance capital intensive. Also, the cost of implementing
through a series resonant circuit under normal the system is further exacerbated since it
condition. Under fault condition, the fault current requires three different hardware for detection
limiter offers a very high impedance through a and clearance of fault. Generally, the system
parallel resonant circuit. In 2013, Ghanbari and uses two non-over-current schemes in addition to
Farjah [47] proposed a unidirectional fault current the over-current protection used in conventional
limiter (UFCL). The proposed UFCL is installed schemes, this results in heavy hardware
between the upstream and downstream network, redundancy and increased failure points.
such that it only limits the current contribution of
the downstream network during a fault in the 5.8 Protection Based on Neutral Points
upstream. Inversely, during a fault in Connection
downstream, the UFCL is inactive and allows a
full contribution of the upstream network. It was In 2016, Kamel, Alsaffar and Habib [49] reported
shown that by this strategy, the proposed UFCL a protection scheme for islanded microgrids. The
can preserve the coordination protection of the proposed scheme increases magnitude of the
upstream over-current relays. fault current when in islanded mode of operation

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so that it becomes sufficiently large for detection proposed relay consists of two distinct sub-relays:
and clearance using current magnitude devices. feeder sub-relay and micro-source sub-relay. The
Operation of the system is achieved through feeder sub-relay measures four parameters
connection of the neutral terminals of all (active power, reactive power, voltage and
microgrid loads to the neutral line of the current) of the feeder while the micro-source sub-
microgrid’s earth. This provides a path of least relay measures similar parameters of the micro-
resistance and increases magnitude of the source. Online as well as offline response test of
current whenever it is faulted. On one hand, the the proposed relay indicates that it generates
system is simple, cost-effective and reliable. It logic 1 during short circuits and logic 0 during
also fulfills the peer-to-peer requirement of normal operating conditions in both grid-
microgrid. On the other hand, it fails the plug- connected and islanded modes of operation of
and-play requirement of microgrid. It also applies the microgrid. The proposed relay also provides
to only islanded microgrids. If the microgrid is equivalent response under both voltage and
grid-enabled, the scheme is not only inadequate reactive power control strategies. This is
but also inappropriate. This is for the reason that consistent with response of a reliable protective
under utility short circuit, the scheme has relay as reported in related literature. The
potential to be counter-productive and harmful to proposed relay also supports plug-and-play and
other equipment as well as personnel due to peer-to-peer requirements of microgrids. Similar
large magnitude of utility short circuit MVA. to digital relays reported in literature, the
proposed relay departs from conventional relays
5.9 Protection Based on Fuzzy Logic and wherein protection is based on threshold of short
Neuro-Fuzzy Logic circuit current. In the proposed relay, protection is
based on nominal parameters of micro-sources
In 2018, Maruf [50] proposed a multi-variable and feeders.
relay based on combination of fuzzy rules. The

Table 1. Merits and demerits of proposals for micro-grid protection in literature

Basic measurement in Merits Demerits

proposal
Current magnitude Effective for both short-circuit and Blinding of OCRs
high impedance faults
Voltage magnitude Blinding of OCRs/Effective for in- Susceptible to communication failures
zone and out-of-zone faults
Current differential Very effective for micro-grids Very expensive and vulnerable to
protection of various faults communication failures
Distance (Impedance) Operation may not require Intermediate in-feed of microsources has
communication links impact on the measurement of the fault
impedance
Essentially current, but Adapts to changes in network Vulnerable to communication failures and
other quantities could configuration adaptation may not be instantaneous
be employed
Current - Use of Effective for both grid-connected Expensive and potentially counter-
external devices and islanded operating modes productive
Multi-agent approach Applicable to both balanced and Over-redundancy of hardware and
unbalanced faults in both modes increased failure points.
of operation.
Neutral points Simple, cost-effective and It fails the plug-and-play requirement of
connection reliable. It also satisfies the peer- microgrid. Its applicability is also limited
to-peer requirement of micro-grid to micro-grids in islanded mode of
operation
Fuzzy Logic Applicable to both balanced and Rules have to be formulated to meet
unbalanced faults in both modes requirements of each microgrid, resulting
of operation in programming of hardware for specific
microgrid

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6. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF 7. Dewadasa M, Majumder R, Ghosh A,

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characteristics of inverter-based distributed
energy resources. N. R. E. Laboratory, Ed.,
7. CONCLUSION
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