Introduction to Communication Systems

Course Code: ECEG-4111

Program: BSc In Electrical & Computer Engineering
Course credit (hours/week): 5 ECTS (2 Hrs-Lec, 2 Hrs- lab & 3 - Hrs
Tutorial)
1
Year / Semester: 4 / 1
Course Instructor: Kassaye Hailu
E-Mail: kassaye2112@gmail.com
3/14/2023
2.3 None linear(angle)
modulation techniques
2
❖ Angle modulation is the process by which the angle (frequency or phase)

of the carrier signal is changed in accordance with the instantaneous

amplitude of modulating or message signal.

❖ In FM the carrier amplitude remains constant, the carrier frequency varies

with the amplitude of modulating signal

❖ Angle modulation is classified into two types such as

1. Frequency modulation (FM)

2. Phase modulation (PM)

3
❖ Angle modulation provide much better protection to the message against the channel

noise as compared to the linear (amplitude) modulation schemes.

❖ Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading since amplitude

variations are unimportant and are removed at the receiver using a limiting circuit.

❖ Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference.

❖ Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in information.

❖ Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic range of modulating signal

without distortion than AM.

4
❖ The spectral components in the angle modulated waveform depend on the
amplitude as well as the frequency of the spectral components in the baseband
signal

❖ The angle modulation system is not linear and superposition does not apply.

❖ Because of its constant amplitude nature, angle modulation can withstand

nonlinear distortion and amplitude fading.

❖ Operate in very high frequency band (VHF): 88MHz-108MHz

❖ Can transmit musical programs with higher degree of fidelity.

5
❖ Angle modulation requires a transmission bandwidth much larger than the message

signal bandwidth.

❖ Angle modulation requires more complex and expensive circuits than AM.

Angle Modulation Used for :

❖ Commercial radio broadcasting

❖ Television sound transmission

❖ Two way mobile radio

❖ Cellular radio

❖ Microwave and satellite communication system

6
❖ Let 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 denote the angle of a modulated signal, assumed to be a function of

the message signal.

❖ The resulting angle-modulated wave is given by

S (t ) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 where 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 is the instantaneous angle quantity

And is a function of m(t ) .

let 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + ∅0 = 𝜔𝑡 + ∅0 ……………………….2.36

❖ The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave s (t ) is defined as

𝟏 𝐝𝛉𝐢 𝐭
𝐟𝐢 𝐭 =
𝟐𝛑 𝐝𝐭
…………………………2.37 7
Figure 2.21 : Illustration of instantaneous phase and frequency
8
❖ Curve 1 in Figure 2.21 depicts the phase behavior of a constant frequency
sinusoid with ∅0 = 0. Hence, its phase, as a function of time is a straight line;
that is 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2πft . Slope of this line is a constant and is equal to the
frequency of the sinusoid.

❖ Curve 2 depicts an arbitrary phase behavior; its slope changes with time.

The instantaneous frequency (in radians per second) of this signal at t = 𝑡1 is

given by the slope of the tangent (green line) at that time.

9
 2.3.1 Phase Modulation (PM)
❖ Phase modulation (PM) is a form of angle-modulation in which the angle 𝜃 𝑡 is
varied linearly with the message signal m(t), i.e.

𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ……. 2.38

❖ The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier and the constant 𝑘𝑝

represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in radians per volt on the
assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.

The Phase-Modulated (PM) signal s(t) is thus described by

S (t )= 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ………2.39

10
 2.3.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)
❖ Frequency modulation (FM) is a form of angle-modulation in which

the frequency f(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) ,i.e.

f t = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 …………………..2.40

❖ The term 𝑓𝑐 represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier and the constant 𝑘𝑓

represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in Herz per volt on the
assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.

❖ Integrating Equation 2.29 with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2𝜋, we get

t
θ t = 2πfc t + 2πk f ‫׬‬0 m τ dτ ……………………………2.41
11
The Frequency-Modulated (FM) signal is therefore described by

t
S (t ) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + 2πk f ‫׬‬0 m τ dτ ………………..2.42

❖ Comparing Equation 2.39 & 2.42 reveals that an FM signal may be regarded as a PM
t
signal in which the modulating wave is ‫׬‬0 m τ dτ in place of m(t).

❖ This means that an FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then using

the result as the input to a phase modulator, as shown in figure 2.22 a.

❖ A PM signal can be generated by first differentiating m(t) and then using

The result as the input to a frequency modulator, as in figure 2.22b.

12
❖ All the properties of PM signals can be deduced from those of FM signals

and vice versa.

❖ The FM signal s(t) defined in Equation 2.39 is a nonlinear function of the

modulating signal m(t), which makes frequency modulation a nonlinear

modulation process.

❖ unlike, amplitude modulation, the spectrum of an FM signals is not related

in a simple manner to that of the modulating signal; rather, its analysis is

much more difficult than that of an AM signal.
13
Figure 2.22: Relationship between phase and frequency modulation
14
❖ Frequency is the derivative of phase, or, in other words, frequency

is the rate of change of phase.

❖ The modulation index is proportional to frequency deviation and inversely

proportional to modulating frequency.

❖ Angle modulation produces an infinite number of sidebands.

❖ These sidebands are separated from the carrier by multiples of fm

❖ For practical purposes an angle-modulated signal can be considered

To be band-limited
15
Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal defined by

m(t) = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 …….2.43

The frequency of the resulting FM signal equals

f t = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ………2.44

f t = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ….....2.45

where The quantity ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 is called the frequency deviation representing

the maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier.

16
❖ ∆𝑓 is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and

is independent of the modulating frequency.

❖ Using Equation 2.44, the angle of the FM signal is obtained as

t
θ t = 2𝜋 න f τ dτ
0
∆𝑓
θ t = 2πfc t + sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 …………….2.46
𝑓𝑚

❖ The ratio of the frequency deviation ∆𝑓 to the modulation frequency is called

the modulation index of the FM signal

∆𝑓
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑀 = 𝛽 = ………… 2.47
𝑓𝑚
17
❖ The worse case modulation index which produces the widest output frequency spectrum is

called deviation ratio.

∆𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
DR = 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒇𝒎 𝒎𝒂𝒙

18
θ t = 2πfc t + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ………… 2.48

❖ From Equation 2.48 in a physical sense, the parameter 𝛽 represents the phase
deviation of the FM signal, that is, the maximum departure of the angle θ t from the angle
2πfc t of the unmodulated carrier, hence, 𝛽 is measured in radians.

❖ The FM signal is given by

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ……2.49

❖ The are two cases of frequency modulation depending on the value
of the modulation index 𝛽 :
1. Narrowband FM, for which 𝛽 is small compare to one radian (𝛽 ≪ 1).
2. Wideband FM, for which 𝛽 is large compared to one radian(𝛽 ≫ 1).

19
 2.3.3 Narrowband Frequency Modulations (NBFM)

The FM signal is given by

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2πfc t sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 .….2.50

For 𝛽 ≪ 1𝑟𝑎𝑑, cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ≈1

sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ≈ 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

20
 Hence, equation 2.50 is reduced to

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t − 𝛽𝐴𝑐 sin 2πfc t sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

𝛽𝐴𝑐
s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 …2.51
2

❖ The s(t)NBFM contain the pure carrier , lower and upper side bands which is almost

identical to the standard AM except inversion in the lower sideband.

❖ Narrow band FM has linear property as AM due to lower modulation index and it has

similar property as standard AM.

21
❖ Transmission bandwidth of NBFM 𝐵𝑇 = 2 𝑓𝑚 .
❖ from equation 2.51 the block diagram of S(t)NBFM can be as in figure 2.23

Figure 2.23 Block diagram of a method for generating a narrowband FM signal

22
 2.3.4 Wideband FM (β≫1)
❖ For β ≫1 , the frequency modulated wave is considered as wideband FM .

❖ The standard FM modulated wave s(t) is expressed as in equation 3.49 is

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

s(t) ෢ 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
= 𝑅𝑒 𝑆(𝑡)𝑒 ….2.52

where ෣
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 is the complex envelope of the s(t)
23
❖ As a result of its periodic nature it can be defined in terms of complex
Fourier series as follows
෣
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝐶
−∞ 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡
………..2.53
The complex Fourier coefficient 𝐶𝑛 can be computed as

𝑇𝑚
2
1
𝐶𝑛 = න ෣
𝑆(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑚
−𝑇𝑚
2

𝑇𝑚
1
𝐶𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑚 −𝑇𝑚
2
24
 𝑇𝑚
1
𝐶𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 2
−𝑇𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ……..2.54
𝑇𝑚
2

1 𝜋 𝑑𝑥
𝐶𝑛 = ‫𝐴 ׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑥 , x = 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
𝑇𝑚 −𝜋 𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑚

𝜋
𝐴𝑐
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑇𝑚
−𝜋

𝐴𝑐 𝜋
𝐶𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin 𝑥−𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 .. 2.55
2𝜋 −𝜋

1 𝜋
Where 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 = ‫׬‬ 𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin 𝑥−𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is an 𝑛𝑡ℎ order Bessel function with argument β .
2𝜋 −𝜋
25
Then the complex envelope in terms of Bessel function is then becomes:

෣
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝐶
−∞ 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡

෣
𝑆(𝑡) = σ∞ 𝐴 𝐽
−∞ 𝑐 𝑛 𝛽 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ……………..2.56

Substituting equation 2.56 into equation 2.52 ,we have

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 σ∞ 𝐶
−∞ 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 ෍ 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡

−∞

26
 ∞

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(𝑓𝑐+ 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡

−∞
∞

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 ෍ 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(𝑓𝑐+𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡
−∞
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 σ∞
−∞ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 …..2.57

Taking the Fourier transform of equation 2.57, we get

𝐴𝑐
S(f) = σ∞
−∞ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑛𝑓𝑚 ..2.58
2

27
The following figure shows the plot of Bessel function 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 versus the
modulation index 𝛽 for different +𝑣𝑒 integer values of n.

Figure 2.24: Bessel functions of the first kind for varying order
28
 PROPERTIES OF 𝐽𝑛 𝛽
1. 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 is always real (For all n and β ).
2. 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 = −1 𝑛 𝐽−𝑛 𝛽
𝟐
3. σ∞ 𝑱
−∞ 𝒏 𝜷 =𝟏
4. for small values of β:
𝛽 𝑛
2
➢ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 =
𝑛!
➢ 𝐽0 𝛽 = 1
𝛽
➢ 𝐽1 𝛽 =
2
➢ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 ≈ 0 for n> 1

29
BESSEL FUNCTION TABLE

30
❖ As seen from equation 2.58 s(f) has infinite number of sidebands

𝐀𝐜 𝐉𝐧 𝛃
with amplitude of .
𝟐

❖ Similarly, the average power 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 of the he FM signal with tone

𝑨𝒄 𝟐 ∞ 𝑨𝒄 𝟐
modulation is 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = σ−∞ 𝑱𝒏 𝟐 𝜷 =
𝟐 𝟐

❖ The amplitude levels of higher and higher sidebands tend to

decrease as these are away from the carrier frequency

31
❖ The spectrum of an FM signal contains a carrier component and

an infinite set of Side frequencies located symmetrically on either

side of the carrier at frequency separations of 𝑓𝑚 , 2𝑓𝑚 , …

❖ As the value of modulation index increases, the number of

sidebands tends to increase significantly and hence the bandwidth of

FM signal also increases.

32
 PROPERTIES OF 𝑭𝑴
❖ Due to the infinite number of side bands , the transmission bandwidth of
fm modulated wave is theoretically assumed to be infinite.

❖ In practice all these side band are not significant , only some finite side
bands whose bessel coefficient 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 > 0.01 are considered as significant
side band.

❖ Frequency-modulated signal can be considered to be band limited

because sidebands with amplitude levels less than about 1% of the total
power can usually be ignored
33
 PROPERTIES OF 𝑭𝑴
❖ For small β , only 𝐽0 𝛽 and 𝐽1 𝛽 are significant. Then the FM spectrum
has only three components: at fc , fc ± fm . This situation corresponds to the
special case of NBFM.

❖ The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to

𝐽0 𝛽 .Thus, in contrast to AM, this amplitude ‘contains’ part of the message
information. Moreover, 𝐽0 𝛽 = 0 for some values β(β = 2.4, 5.5, etc.).

𝑛 𝑛
❖ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 decays monotonically for > 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 ≪ 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≫ 1.
𝛽 𝛽
34
 2.3.5 TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF WBFM SIGNALS
❖ Transmission bandwidth of FM signal can be defined as the spacing between the
frequency beyond which none of the side bands have an amplitude level of greater than
1% of the un modulated carrier level. Based on this definition , the actual minimum
transmission bandwidth using the Bessel function can be computed as :

𝑩𝑻 = 2𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒇𝒎

Where 𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙 is number of sidebands that satisfy 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 > 0.01 and its value is taken from
Bessel function table.

35
 2.3.5 TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF WBFM SIGNALS
❖ The effective bandwidth required for the transmission of FM signals possibly with

some amount of distortion is determined by Carson’s rule as

𝟏
𝑩𝑻 = 2(∆𝒇 + 𝒇𝒎 ) = 2(𝜷𝒇𝒎 + 𝒇𝒎 ) = 2𝒇𝒎 (𝜷 + 𝟏) = 2∆𝒇 𝟏 +
𝜷

❖ For large value of the modulation index 𝜷 , the bandwidth approaches, and is only

slightly greater than, the total frequency excursion 2∆𝒇.

❖ For small value of the modulation index 𝜷 , the spectrum of the FM signal is

effectively limited to the carrier frequency and one pair of side. frequencies at

𝒇𝒄 ± 𝒇𝒎 , so that the bandwidth approaches 𝟐𝒇𝒎 .

36
2.3.6 GENERATION OF WBFM SIGNAL
There are essentially two basic methods of generating frequency modulated

signals, namely

1. Direct FM (Parameter Variation Method)

2. Indirect FM(Armstrong’s)

❖ In the direct method the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input

baseband signal, which is readily accomplished using a "Voltage Controlled Oscillator”.

37
 1. DIRECT FM (PARAMETER VARIATION METHOD)
❖ The frequency of modulated wave is directly influenced by the modulating signal m(t).

❖ The running frequency of the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is proportional to

incoming signal m(t).

❖ Is generating an FM signal by designing an oscillator whose frequency changes with the

input voltage.

❖ Advantage: large frequency deviation

❖ Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and must be stabilized

38
2.3.6 GENERATION OF WBFM SIGNAL
1. Direct FM (Parameter Variation Method)

Figure 2.25 direct method of generating WBFM

❖ The principal difficulty here is to maintain a stable carrier Frequency over
extended period of time.
39
 2. INDIRECT FM(ARMSTRONG’S)
❖ The direct methods cannot be used for the broadcast applications.

❖Thus the alternative method i.e. indirect method called as the Armstrong
method of FM generation is used.

❖ In this method the FM is obtained through phase modulation. A crystal

oscillator can be used hence the frequency stability is very high.

❖ The modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow band FM signal,

and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation
to the desired level.
40
 2. INDIRECT FM(ARMSTRONG’S)

Figure 2.26: Block diagram of indirect method of generating a WBFM 41

2.3.6 GENERATION OF WBFM SIGNAL
2. Indirect FM
❖ To minimize the distortion inherent in the phase modulator, the maximum

phase deviation or modulation index 𝛽 is kept small thereby resulting in

NBFM signal.

❖ The NBFM signal is next multiplied in frequency by means of a frequency

multiplier so as to produce the desired WBFM signal.

❖ The frequency multiplier consists of a nonlinear device followed by a band-

pass filter.
42
2.3.7 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS
❖ Frequency demodulation is recovering the original modulating signal from

a frequency-modulated signal.

❖ FM demodulation can be realized by the following two methods:

1. Frequency –discriminator

2. Phase lock loop

43
2.3.7 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS
1. FREQUENCY –DISCRIMINATOR

❖ is a direct method whose instantaneous output amplitude is directly

proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.

❖ frequency discriminator can be modelled as a pair of a slope circuits with

their complex transfer functions, followed by envelope detectors and finally a
summer, as in Figure 2.27.

✓ This scheme is called a balanced frequency discriminator.

44
 2.3.7 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS

Figure 2.27:block diagram of frequency discriminator 45

 2.3.7 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS
2. Phase lock loop
❖ Is an indirect method.

❖ consists of three major components:

▪ Multiplier

▪ A loop filter

▪ A voltage- controlled oscillator (VCO) connected together in the form of a feed back system.

❖ The VCO is a sinusoidal generator whose frequency is determined by a voltage applied to it from
external source.

❖In effect any frequency modulator may ser as VCO.

46
 2.3.7 DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS

Figure 2.28: phase lock loop 47

Example 2.2 an angle-modulated signal with angular frequency 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋 × 105 is
described by the Equation
s(t) = 10cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 5 sin 3000𝑡 + 10 sin 2000𝜋𝑡
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
a. The power of the modulated signal
b. The phase deviation
c. The frequency deviation ∆𝑓
d. The modulation index
SOLUTION
𝐴𝑐 102 100𝑊
a. The power of the modulated signal = = = = 50w
2 2 2

b. The phase deviation is the maximum value of the angle 𝜃 𝑡 deviated from 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 which is
given by ∆∅ = 5rad +10 rad = 15 rad

48
c. To find the frequency deviation ∆𝑓 first find angular frequency and

then divide by 2 as follows:

𝑑 𝑑
𝜔 𝑡 = 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 5 sin 3000𝑡 + 10 sin 2000𝜋𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 𝜔𝑐 +15000cos 3000𝑡 + 20000𝜋 cos 2000𝜋𝑡

𝜔 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 =
2𝜋

𝜔𝑐 +15000 cos 3000𝑡+20000𝜋 cos 2000𝜋𝑡

=
2𝜋

49
 𝜔 𝑡 𝜔𝑐 +15000 cos 3000𝑡+20000𝜋 cos 2000𝜋𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 = =
2𝜋 2𝜋

2𝜋𝑓𝑐 +15000 cos 3000𝑡+20000𝜋 cos 2000𝜋𝑡

=
2𝜋

15000
= 𝑓𝑐 + cos 3000𝑡 + 10000 cos 2000𝜋𝑡
2𝜋

❖ The maximum frequency deviation occur when the two sinusoids will add in

15000
phase at some point, and its value ∆𝑓 = + 10000 = 12,387.32Hz
2𝜋

50
d. The modulating signal bandwidth is the highest frequency in m(t).

in this case 𝑓𝑚 = w = 1000Hz then

∆𝑓 12,387.32Hz
𝛽 = = = 12.387
𝑓𝑚 1000Hz

51
 Summary questions with their answers
1. What percent of the transmitted power is used by the carrier signal in AM?

Solution

In AM, Total power = carrier power + Total sideband Power

𝑨𝟐 𝒄 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝝁𝟐
= + = 𝟏 + = 𝒑𝒄 𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐
𝟏+ 𝟏+
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 + 𝛍𝟐
𝒑𝒄 = = =
Total sideband Power 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝛍𝟐
𝟒
𝟐+𝟏
For perfect modulation, 𝜇 = 1 .hence, 𝒑𝒄 = =3 52
𝟏
 Summary questions with their answers
𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟗
Total power = 𝟑 𝟏 + =𝟑× =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
3
𝒑𝒄 % = × 100
9
2
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒑𝒄 % = = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕
𝟗
Therefore in amplitude modulated wave, the 66.66% of the transmitted power is used by the
carrier signal and remaining 33.33% of the power is used by the sidebands.
2. The total sideband power is what percentage of the carrier power for 100% modulation?
Solution
𝑨 𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝝁𝟐
Total sideband Power = Power in USB + Power in LSB = 𝟐× =
𝟖 𝟒
𝑨𝒄 𝟐 𝒑𝒄
For 100% modulation, Total sideband Power = = = 50% of 𝒑𝒄
𝟒 𝟐

53
 3. Compare & contrast AM and FM
solution
AM FM
The amplitude of a carrier signal changed The carrier wave frequency is changed based
based on the data signal. on the signal that holds data.
Covers long distance Covers short distance

amplitude modulation signals are capable FM also allows sending stereo signals.
of bouncing off the ionosphere
Requires Low BW requires high BW
The modulation index ranges from 0 to 1 The modulation index of FM is higher than 1
54
AM FM
The radio signal is known as a carrier The radio signal is known as a carrier
signal & both the phase & frequency signal, however, the amplitude, as well as
remain the same phase, remain the same
More liable to noise Less liable to noise
The sound clarity is poor has high BW including good sound quality

The AM frequency ranges from The FM frequency ranges from

535 kHz – 1705 kHz 88 MHz – 108 MHz in the higher spectrum

has an easy circuit has a difficult circuit

operates in the MF (medium frequency) operates in VHF.
& HF( high frequency).
High transmission power Less transmission power

55
4. Consider the scheme shown in the figure shown below.

56
Solution

We know that for FM, f t = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

but now, the input of the modulator is the square of m(t) = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 .

Thus the input of the modulator is found by

m(t)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝑚 2 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝑚 2 1 − cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 2

2 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡
m(t)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐴𝑚 1−
2

2 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡
m(t)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐴𝑚
2

𝐴𝑚 2
m(t)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 57
2
 𝐴𝑚 2
m(t)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2
s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2πfc t + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 FM equation …… …1
s(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔′ c t − 𝛽 sin 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 given ………..2
Comparing equation 1 & equation 2, we get
k f Am 2
a. f′c = fc +
2
kf Am 2
𝛽=
2𝑓𝑚
b. From equation 2, the frequency of the modulating signal is doubled. Therefore the
frequency components are separated by 2𝑓𝑚 ,4𝑓𝑚 ,6𝑓𝑚 ,…
5. The audio signal having frequency 500Hz and voltage 2.6V, shows a deviation of 5.2KHz
in a Frequency Modulation system. If the audio signal voltage changes to 8.6V, calculate the
new deviation obtained.
58
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜n
∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚

∆𝑓 5.2KHz
➢ 𝑘𝑓 = = = 2𝑘𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝐴𝑚 2.6V

➢∆𝑓(8.6𝑉) = 𝑘𝑓 × 8.6𝑉 = 17.2𝑘𝐻𝑧

6. In an FM system, carrier of 100 MHz is modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 5KHz. The

bandwidth by Carson’s approximation is 1MHz. If y(t) = modulated waveform 3 ,then by
using Carson’s approximation, the band width of y(t) around 300MHz and the spacing of
spectral components respectively are ____________.

59
➢𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜n

➢ In an FM signal, adjacent spectral components get separated by modulating frequency

➢ 𝑓𝑚 =𝟓𝑲𝑯𝒛
𝟏
𝑩𝑻 = 2(∆𝒇 + 𝒇𝒎 ) = 2(𝜷𝒇𝒎 + 𝒇𝒎 ) = 2𝒇𝒎 (𝜷 + 𝟏) = 2∆𝒇 𝟏 + = 𝟏𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝜷
➢∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛
➢Δ𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛 −𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝑲𝑯𝒛

❖ The nth order non-linearity makes the carrier frequency and frequency deviation

increased by n-fold, with baseband frequency 𝒇𝒎 unchanged.

(Δ𝒇 )𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟑×𝟒𝟗𝟓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟓𝑲𝑯𝒛
𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑩𝑻 = 𝟐(𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟓+𝟓)×103 = 𝟐.𝟗𝟖𝑴𝑯𝒛 ≈ 𝟑𝑴𝑯𝒛

60
➢ 7. write the applications of FM
➢Solution

➢ in FM radio ,direct satellite broadcasting

➢ computer modems
➢ Magnetic record system

➢ in RADAR
➢Music synthesis

➢ Walky-talkies (police communication system)

➢ in Bluetooth, ZigBee, ambulance communication technologies

➢ in two way radio communication for its low noise features.

61
➢ 8. write the advantages and disadvantages of FM

advantages of FM Disadvantages of FM

Very low noise distortion complex circuit

Use small size antenna Not used for long distance communication
Without repeater
Low power consumption costlier
Ver good sound quality
Huge amount of data can be
transmitted

62
9. For an FM modulator with 40-kHz frequency deviation and a modulating-signal
frequency 10 kHz, determine the bandwidth using both Carson’s rule and Bessel table.

solution

1. With Carson’s rule

𝐵𝑇 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 ) = 2(40 kHz+10 𝑘𝐻𝑧) = 100kHz

2. With Bessel table:

∆𝑓 40
𝛽= = =4
𝑓𝑚 10

From Bessel table, 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 > 0.01 𝑓𝑜𝑟 n ≤ 7

Thus 𝐵𝑇 = 2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑚 = 2 × 7 × 10𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 140𝑘𝐻𝑧 63

10. Determine the deviation ratio and worst-case bandwidth for an FM signal with a
maximum frequency deviation 25 kHz and maximum modulating signal 12.5 kHz.

Solution

∆𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 25𝑘𝐻𝑧
DR = 𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =2
𝑓𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 12.5𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝐵𝑇 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑚 , from Bessel’s table, 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 > 0.01 𝑓𝑜𝑟 n ≤ 4

𝐵𝑇 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2 × 4 × 12.5𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 100𝑘𝐻𝑧

64
11. A frequency modulated signal (FM) has the following expression:

s(t) =38 cos 400π × 106 t + 𝛽 sin 10𝜋 × 103 𝑡

The frequency deviation allowed in this system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:

a. Modulation index

b. Bandwidth required, using Carson’s rule

Solution

∆𝑓 75×103
a. 𝛽= = = 15
𝑓𝑚 5×103

b. 𝐵𝑇 = 2(∆𝑓+ 𝑓𝑚 ) = 2 75𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 5𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 160𝑘𝐻𝑧

65