Mobile Computing - Notes https://rishikeshvadodaria.github.

io/mkdocs/mobile-computing/

Mobile Computing

Mobile computing is a technology that enables the of

through mobile devices .

- Involves that enable seamless connectivity.

- Supports over .

- Includes that access mobility services:

-
-
-
-
-

- that run on mobile devices.

- Examples: .
- Acts as the that powers mobile functionalities.

– Enables browsing, cloud computing, and real-time communication.

– Provides navigation, tracking, and geolocation services.
– Supports disaster response, medical alerts, and real-time rescue

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coordination.
– Powers mobile gaming, streaming platforms, and digital media.
– Supports .

Evolution of Mobile Computing

The evolution of marks advancements in
, revolutionizing communication and connectivity.

1980s – 1990s
, based on

- Allowed but limited to one country.

- Used , leading to and frequent call drops.
- and .
- , only voice communication.

1990s

- replaced analog, improving .

- Introduced for text and picture messaging.
- Enabled .
- Used .
- Introduced , achieving speeds of .

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- Introduced .
- Enabled .
- Used , improving e�ciency.
- than 2G.
- Introduction of .

- , enabling .
- , improving network performance.
- Served as a , enhancing .

2000s

- Enabled .
- Provided , including .
- Increased for improved web-based applications.
- compared to 2G.

2010s

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- with .
- Supported for HD video and VoIP (Voice over IP).
- Introduced for improved call quality.
- for broader coverage.
- in mobile communication.

2020s

- – Up to for ultra-fast downloads and real-time communication.

- – , essential for
.
- – Supports .
- – allows dedicated networks for speci�c applications.

AMPS (Analog) 2.4 kbps Voice calls, poor quality, no data

GSM & CDMA 144 kbps Digital voice, SMS, MMS, basic
internet

GPRS 64 – 144 kbps Always-on internet, emails, camera

phones

EDGE Up to 384 kbps Faster browsing, video streaming

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WCDMA, HSPA Up to 2 Mbps Video calls, multimedia, web-based

apps

LTE, WiMAX 10 Mbps – 1 HD streaming, VoLTE, broadband

Gbps connectivity

mmWave, Up to 20 Gbps Ultra-fast speeds, IoT, AI-powered

MIMO networks

The is structured in a to provide across

large geographical areas.

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– Phones, tablets, or IoT devices.

– Handles wireless communication with mobile devices.
– Manages multiple BTS and assigns frequencies.
– Connects mobile calls and manages handovers.
– Traditional wired telephone network.
– Allows mobile data access and browsing.
– Divides the service area into to provide coverage.

Mode of Communications

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Packet-Switched Network

User C Circuit-Switched Network

User A
Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 3

Dedicated Path
Router Router Router

User B

User D

Mobile computing architecture ensures seamless communication,

, making applications e�cient and scalable.

- Identify available services like in the local

environment.

- and to the user’s current location.

- Automatic alerts (e.g., in a supermarket).

- User-requested data (e.g., ).

- Maintains , allowing smooth mobility.

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- Controls to location information.

Three-Tier Mobile Computing Architecture

- Where users interact with the mobile app.

- Handles .
- Supports .

- Routes tra�c between .

- Adapts to .
- Ensures even if one route fails.

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- – Organizes tasks and work�ows (e.g., ).

- – Enforces rules and decision-making (e.g., ).

- – Organizes data storage and retrieval (like a ).

- – The actual storage where information is kept (like a ).

More users can be handled by .

If one component fails, others .
Different layers can be updated or �xed .
Works well on .

The where customers interact with waiters.

The who take orders to the kitchen.

The where food is prepared based on orders.

The where ingredients are stored.

Multiplexing is a key technique in communication systems that allows multiple users to share a
single medium with minimal or no interference.

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Highways as a Shared Medium: - Multiple vehicles (users) travel on the same highway (medium)
without interference. - Space Division Multiplexing (SDM): Cars use separate lanes. - Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM): Cars use the same lane at different times.

� Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocols

• What is MAC?

A sublayer of the Data Link Layer responsible for coordinating transmissions between multiple
nodes.

Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

The MAC Problem in Wireless Networks

When multiple nodes transmit simultaneously, their signals collide, causing:

Lost data and wasted bandwidth.

Increased retransmissions, leading to higher delays and lower e�ciency.

Solution? Use a protocol to manage access to the shared medium.

What MAC Protocols Must Do:

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• Minimize Collisions to optimize bandwidth usage.

• Decide when a station can transmit to avoid con�icts.

• Handle busy channels by deciding whether to wait or retransmit.

• Resolve collisions e�ciently to ensure smooth data transmission.

Here is the representation of along with a brief

explanation for each type:

Multiple-Access Protocols

Random Access Protocols Controlled-Access Protocols Channelization Protocols

ALOHA CSMA CSMA/CD CSMA/CA Reservation Polling Token Passing FDMA TDMA CDMA

(No �xed control, contention-based):

- – Transmits data randomly; high collision rate.
- – Senses channel before sending data to reduce
collisions.
- – Detects collisions and retransmits (used in Ethernet).
- – Avoids collisions before transmission (used in Wi-Fi).

(Centralized control, avoids collisions):

- – Nodes reserve slots before transmission.
- – Central controller decides which node transmits.
- – A token circulates, granting transmission rights.

(Divide channel into separate logical paths):

- – Assigns different frequencies to users.
- – Allocates time slots to users.
- – Uses unique codes for simultaneous transmissions.

- across the wire.

- can be assumed throughout if the wire length is within standard limits.

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- by any node listening to the wire.

1. – Listen to the wire; if free, send data.

2. – If a collision is detected while transmitting, stop immediately and send a
to notify all nodes.

- The .
- , ensuring e�cient retransmission.

- due to distance and obstacles.

- follows the inverse square law (1/d2), weakening signals over distance.
- by simply listening to the medium.

1. – The sender may detect an , but the receiver may still experience a
.
2. – The sender cannot always detect a collision at the receiver’s end.

- Wireless nodes have .

- The causes undetected collisions.
- Instead, wireless networks use to
.

Wireless networks face unique challenges due to signal interference, attenuation, and variable
reception.

- A and C cannot hear each other but are both within B’s range.
- A starts transmitting to B.

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- C senses the medium as free (since it cannot hear A) and starts transmitting to B at the same
time.
- A collision occurs at B, but neither A nor C detects it.

- Other senders are hidden from the current sender, leading to undetected collisions.

- The RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) mechanism helps avoid hidden terminal issues
by coordinating access.

- B is transmitting to A.
- C senses the medium as busy because B is transmitting.
- However, C could have transmitted to D without causing a collision.
- C unnecessarily defers its transmission, reducing network e�ciency.

- The sender mistakenly assumes the medium is in use, leading to wasted transmission
opportunities.

- Spatial reuse techniques allow simultaneous non-interfering transmissions.

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R₁ (Receiver 1) S₁ (Sender 1) S₂ (Sender 2) R₂ (Receiver 2)

1. Initial Communication Setup

Request to Send (RTS)

Clear to Send (CTS)

2. Data Transfer Begins

DATA Transmission

Medium is Busy

Waiting for Clear Medium

3. Successful Data Transfer

Data Transfer Complete

Medium is Now Clear

R₁ (Receiver 1) S₁ (Sender 1) S₂ (Sender 2) R₂ (Receiver 2)

- B is closer to C than A.
- B’s stronger signal overpowers A’s weaker signal at C.
- C cannot receive A’s transmission properly, causing data loss.

- Signal strength imbalance leads to weaker signals being drowned out by stronger ones.

- Power control mechanisms ensure all terminals are detectable at the base station.
- GSM avoids the problem by using time slots (TDMA), preventing simultaneous transmission.
- CDMA uses power control so all signals arrive at the receiver with equal strength.

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Wireless channels can be multiplexed in four key dimensions:

1. : A channel occupies the entire frequency spectrum for a speci�c time period.

2. : The same frequency can be reused if base stations are su�ciently separated.

3. : The spectrum is divided into smaller frequency bands.

4. : Each channel is assigned a unique code for transmission.

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• SDM involves separating channels in three dimensions: , , and .

• The dimension is represented by circles indicating interference ranges.

• To prevent overlap, channels are mapped to separate spaces (s1 to s3). This creates "guard
space" between channels.

• are clearly separated, while additional spaces are needed for

.

• This principle is similar to how old analog phone systems provided separate copper wires for
each subscriber.

Example: FM Radio

• Multiple radio stations can use the same frequency without interference, as long as they are
separated geographically.

• : Needed in all multiplexing schemes to prevent interference.

• : Effective for localized transmissions like FM radio but not scalable for dense urban

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areas.

If several radio stations want to broadcast in the same city - Solution?

SDM not suitable

Solution:

Multiplexing through

Frequency

Time

Code

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) divides the frequency dimension into several non-
overlapping frequency bands. Each channel ki is assigned a speci�c frequency band, which can be
used continuously by the sender.

• : Essential to prevent frequency band overlap (also called adjacent channel

interference).

• : Used by radio stations within the same region, where each station broadcasts on its
own frequency.

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How FDM Works

• : The receiver only needs to tune into the speci�c frequency assigned to the
sender.

• : Common in systems like radio broadcasting, where multiple stations use different
frequencies to avoid interference.

Advantages of FDM

• : Very simple to implement, as it requires minimal coordination between the sender

and receiver.

• : Each sender can use its frequency band continuously, making it suitable for
applications like radio broadcasting.

Disadvantages of FDM

• : In mobile communication, where communication is short-term,

dedicating an entire frequency band to each scenario would waste valuable frequency
resources.

• : The �xed assignment of frequencies to senders makes the system

in�exible, limiting the number of senders that can be supported.

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In , each channel ki is allocated the entire bandwidth for a

speci�c time period. Multiple senders use the same frequency but at different points in time.

• : Time gaps between transmissions are required to prevent overlap.

• : Occurs if transmissions overlap in time, similar to cars colliding on a

highway.

How TDM Works

• : Senders must be precisely synchronized, which requires clocks or a

method to distribute synchronization signals.

• : The receiver must not only adjust the frequency but also tune to the exact
time slot for receiving data.

• : TDM is �exible, allowing more time for senders with heavy tra�c and less time for
those with lighter loads.

Disadvantages of TDM

• : All senders need to be synchronized, which adds complexity.

• : A receiver must adjust both the frequency and the correct time slot.

• : If multiple senders choose the same frequency at the same time,

interference occurs.

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Time + Frequency Division Multiplexing (TDMA + FDMA)

A combination of both and can be used, where each channel is allotted a speci�c
frequency for a set time period.

• : Required in both time and frequency dimensions.

• : uses TDMA + FDMA for communication between mobile phones and base
stations.

Advantages of TDMA + FDMA

• : Provides some protection against frequency selective interference.

• : The sequence of frequencies must be known to intercept data,

providing some protection.

Disadvantages of TDMA + FDMA

• : Coordination between senders is required for frequency and time management.

• : If two senders use the same frequency at the same time, interference occurs.
Frequency hopping can minimize this, reducing interference time.

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Key Takeaways

• : Simple but requires precise synchronization, making it suitable for scenarios where each
sender needs to transmit in de�ned time slots.

• : Offers better robustness and protection, but requires complex coordination

and management of both time and frequency.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

is a relatively new scheme used in commercial communication

systems, having been initially used in military applications due to its built-in security features.

• : All channels ki use the same frequency at the same time. Separation is
achieved by assigning each channel its own unique "code."

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• : This is ensured by using codes with a su�cient "distance" in the code space,
such as orthogonal codes.

Example: Party with Global Participants

Imagine a party with many participants from different countries who communicate using the same
frequency range (approx. 300–6000 Hz):

• : If everyone speaks the same language, space division multiplexing

(SDM) is required to separate groups.

• : As soon as another language is used, a new code (language) can

be tuned into, clearly separating communication in different languages. Other languages
appear as background noise.

CDM Security

• : If the receiver doesn’t know the code (or language), the signals are received
but are essentially useless. This creates a secure channel in a potentially "hostile"
environment, much like using a secret language at the party.

• : Codes must be su�ciently distinct (e.g., Swedish and Finnish are orthogonal
enough, but Swedish and Norwegian are too similar for separation).

Advantages of CDM

• : CDM provides strong protection against interference and tapping. The

huge code space allows for easy assignment of unique codes to different senders without
signi�cant issues.

• : A secret code can create a secure channel, as only those with the correct code can
decode the message.

Disadvantages of CDM

• : The receiver must know the code and be able to decode the signal amidst

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background noise. This increases the complexity of the receiver.

• : The receiver must be precisely synchronized with the

transmitter for accurate decoding.

• : Signals must reach the receiver with equal strength. If signals are uneven, such
as someone speaking too loudly near the receiver, the loud signal could drain the others,
making it di�cult for the receiver to decode other channels.

Key Takeaways

• : Provides secure and interference-resistant communication but requires precise

synchronization and power control.

• : Built-in security by using unique codes (or languages) for each communication
channel.

• : High complexity due to the need for the receiver to decode signals accurately and
maintain synchronization.

Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques

Segment Segment sending Divide the Spread the

space into time into disjoint frequency spectrum using
cells/sectors time-slots band into orthogonal
sub-bands codes

Only one All terminals Each terminal All terminals

terminal share the same has its own can be active
active per frequency but dedicated simultaneously
cell/sector transmit in time frequency using unique
slots codes

Cell structure Synchronization Filtering in Codes and

with directed in the time the frequency special
antennas domain domain receivers

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Simple, Fully digital, very Simple, Highly �exible,

increases �exible robust, and less planning
capacity per well- needed,
km² established supports soft
handover

In�exible, Guard space In�exible, Complex

�xed needed, limited by receivers,
antennas synchronization available requires precise
required is complex frequencies power control

Used in Standard in �xed Often Used in 3G

combination networks, often combined systems,
with TDMA, combined with with TDMA requires
FDMA, or FDMA/SDMA in (frequency integration with
CDMA mobile networks hopping TDMA/FDMA
patterns) and
SDMA
(frequency
reuse)

Logical Mobility

refers to the ability to transfer software components, code, or computational

elements between different systems or devices.

• : Moving entire applications between devices.

• : Transferring scripts or functions dynamically.

• : Migrating serialized objects or database entries.

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• : Shifting active processing tasks to another system.

• : Installing an application from an app store.

• : A browser fetching and executing JavaScript from a server.

Process Migration

is the transfer of an executing process from one computing system to another

while maintaining its state.

• :

• : Memory and allocated resources.

• : CPU register contents.

• : Open �les, message channels.

• : Any system-speci�c data.

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1. : A source and destination process.

2. : The destination instance takes over as the migrated process.

3. : A process running on another machine is called a .

• Watching a movie on a , then continuing playback on a while traveling.

• A migration request is sent to a remote node.

• After negotiation, the migration is accepted.

• The process is suspended on the source node.

• It is marked as "migrating."

• Communication is temporarily redirected.

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• Incoming messages are queued.

• Messages are delivered after migration.

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• The process's memory, registers, communication state, and kernel context are extracted.

• A new process instance is initialized on the remote node.

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• The extracted state is transferred to the destination node.

• References (e.g., �le descriptors, network sockets) are updated to point to the new process
instance.

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• The new process instance resumes execution on the remote node.

Advantages of Process Migration

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1.

2. Balances the load by migrating processes from overloaded nodes to less loaded ones.

3.

4. Ensures continuity by migrating processes from nodes that have partially failed or are at risk
of failure.

5.

�. Facilitates maintenance by moving processes from nodes that are about to be shut down or
become unavailable.

7.

�. Enhances e�ciency by migrating processes closer to the data source, especially useful in
mobile environments.

9.

10. Allows access to specialized hardware by migrating a process to a node equipped with the
required resources.

11.

12. Enables users to continue running applications seamlessly as they move between networks or
devices.

Applications of Process Migration

• – Distributing computational tasks across multiple nodes.

• – Allowing execution across different nodes without interruption.

• – Managing distributed workloads effectively.

• – Processes that can be temporarily suspended and resumed

elsewhere.

• – Applications designed to adapt to migration scenarios.

• – Ensuring service continuity as devices move

across networks.

Alternatives to Process Migration

1.

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2. Executes code on a remote node instead of migrating the entire process.

3. due to lower data transfer costs.

4.

5. Creates a copy of the process on a different node using a mechanism.

�. Unlike migration, using distributed shared state.

7. but useful when state inheritance is required.

�.

9. Uses Java, Tcl/Tk, or other technologies to move objects or scripts dynamically.

10. Achieved at the using frameworks like:

Mobile Agents

are software entities that autonomously move between computers and continue
execution on the destination machine.

• : Can function independently, even if the user disconnects from the network.

• : They move dynamically across systems.

• : Store information and operate without requiring continuous communication.

Types of Mobile Agents

1.

2. Follow a speci�c, predetermined route across nodes.

3.

4. Wander freely across the network, dynamically choosing destinations.

Properties of Mobile Agents

A is a software object that exists within an execution environment and possesses

these key traits:

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• – Responds to environmental changes.

• – Controls its own actions.

• – Works proactively towards objectives.

• – Runs inde�nitely.

• � – Can interact with other agents.

• – Can migrate between hosts.

• – Adapts based on past experiences.

Life Cycle of Mobile Agents

to both home and foreign environments.

between nodes as needed.
on achieving the �nal objective.

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without external intervention.

Mobile Agent Platforms

• interpret agent behavior and handle communication.

• – Agents can choose and request migration.

• ⚙ – Can run on any machine without pre-installation.

• – Uses to dynamically load code.

:
– Migrate to a single destination.
– Roam across multiple locations dynamically.

Components of a Mobile Agent

A consists of :

1. – Instructions de�ning the agent’s behavior.

2. – The agent’s progress and memory.

Unlike regular programs where , mobile

agents when migrating!

:
→ Carries both its & → Resumes seamlessly at the new
host.

Characteristics of Mobile Agents

– Each agent has a distinct presence.

– Can detect and interact with other agents.
– Sends & receives structured messages.
– Can communicate with its hosting environment.
– Supports multiple agents running simultaneously.

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Agent Architecture

Mobile Agents vs. Process Migration

Autonomous decision-making; System-controlled; OS or network

agents decide when and where to manager decides movement.
move.

Built-in intelligence to adapt No built-in intelligence; follows

behavior. system instructions.

Moves based on programmed Moves based on system load and

objectives and current needs. resource availability.

Can change destinations Fixed source-to-destination

dynamically; supports multi-hop migration; single-hop only.
movement.

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Carries both together State must be

as a package. .

Can communicate with other agents No inter-process communication

and systems. during migration.

- Requires continuous communication between .

- Frequent request/response cycles increase .

- Moves from client to server, reducing repetitive requests.

- and syncs results when the system is back online.
- Handles effectively.

1. – Must run on different platforms without modi�cations.

2. – Should be available across multiple network environments.

3. – Needs e�cient mechanisms for sending/receiving data.

4. – Must prevent unauthorized agent execution on a host.

5. – Protects agents from external threats or modi�cations.

�. – Tracks resource consumption for optimization.

Diagram: Mobile Agent vs. Client-Server Communication

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Client Server

Request Data

Response

Another Request

Another Response

Client Server

Aglets: Java-Based Mobile Agent Platform

are a for mobile agents, designed by . They allow objects to

on a network while maintaining their execution state.

• An can , move to a remote host, and .

• When an , it to the new host.

• Multiple can run on a single node within different contexts.

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An is the where Aglets operate.

• – Provides a .

• – A single network node can run multiple .

A is a that: - the Aglet from direct access to its public

methods. - , ensuring .

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Aglet is within a context, assigned an identi�er, and initialized.

Execution starts immediately.

Produces an of the Aglet in the same context, with a new

identi�er.

Moves the Aglet , removing it from the current one.

at the destination.

Pulls the Aglet after being dispatched.

Temporarily removes an Aglet from execution and stores it in

.

Restores a back into a context.

and the Aglet from the context permanently.

Aglet Communication

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use to communicate and interact within their environment.

• – Requires an immediate response.

• – Messages are sent without waiting for an immediate reply.

• Used for or agents.

• Example: An Aglet can listen for a and act accordingly.

• � (Java-based) includes:

• Aglet – Core agent class.

• Aglet Proxy – Ensures security and location transparency.

• Aglet Context – Execution environment for Aglets.

• Message – Communication mechanism.

• – Mobile shopping assistants.

• – Automated price comparison & negotiation.

• – Dynamic air-ticket booking & package tour planning.

Aglets operate in an .
There are that handle different events:

Handles events an Aglet is cloned.

Triggers actions
at a new context.

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Manages events of an Aglet.

Aglet Running

Clone Event Migration Event Deactivation Event

Clone Listener Mobility Listener Persistence Listener

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