Front Axle and Steering 1. INTRODUCTION | __ Primary function of the steering system is to achieve i i _{um. This is done through linkage and steering gear which con ing wheel into angular motion of the front road wheels. Secondary functions of Steering system are : 1. To provide directional stability ofthe vehicle when going straight ahead. 2. To provi i f 3. To facilitate strai 4. To minimise tyre wear. Til recently ll vehicles were stered by turning the front wheels in the desired directions, with the rear Wheels following, However, lately all-wheel-stering has been designed and employed in some selected Yehicles, Here only front wheel steering would be discussed in detail, which is being used universally tll today.-A brief description of the four-wheel stering system would also be given. The requirements of a good steering system are : 1. The steering mechanism should be very accurate and easy to handle, 2. The effort required to steer should be minimal and must not be tiresome to the driver. 3, The steering mechanis also provide Tascatear wa E implies that SPRING SEATS. 2. FRONT AXLE © z : ae ; Acton pee Tae SECTION AT AA seevion at a's vehicles only. For four wheel drive vehicles Fig. 8.1. Front axle. and most of the cars, it is a live axle. In case of a dead axle, the 2 front axle beam is usually a drop forging of steel. This type of axle is no more used in modern cars, although it is still being used in heavier vehicles. The steels used for this are 0.4 per cent carbon : steel or 1.3% nickel steel. | j The axle has to take bending 3 loads due to weight of the vehicle ig. 8.2 Front Axle of Tata Truck 1. Brake drum, 2. Axle beam, 3. Tie rodFRONT AXLE AND STEERING 20d also torque loads due to braking of the wheels. For this reason, front axle is made of I-section in central portion, while the ends are made either circular or elliptical. A downward sweep is given to the centre portion to keep a low chassis height. The main axle beam is connected to the stub axles by means of king pins, as shown in Fig. 8.3. The front road wheels are mounted on these stub axles. 3 efter 4 Fig. 8.3. Stub axle connection. 1. Stub axle, 2. King pin, 3, Front axle, 4. Tie rod Stb axle can have any ofthe four shapes given in Fig. 84. Of course, reversed Elliot type is most" QM common. Stub axles are made of 3 per cent nickel steel and alloy steels containing chromium and molybdenum. qeenarere THRUST WASHER STUB ING IN OTTER COTTER FRONT FRONT Axle AXLE THRUST STUB AXLE WASHER (a) Evuior (b) REvERSEO ELLIOT fc) amore (d) REVERSED LAMOINE o0senen? Fig. 8.4. Types of stub axles.wee Sey oe ar 196 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING ‘The front whee! stub axle assembly is clearly shown in Fig. 8.5. The wheel revolves ovtt it ball bearings, which can be adjusted by means of an adjusting nut as shown. Oil seals are provided to prevent « the leakage of lubricant from the bearings. BALL JOINT in ys yo AN M4 N “SUSPENSION MEMBER N N . \cnease CONTAINER Fig. 8.5. Front wheel-stub axle assembly. Fig. 8.6. Replacement of king pin by ball joints. In vehicles using independént suspension at the front, rigid axle has been dispensed with as already explained in chapter 7, though the stub axle is retained which is connected to the members of the suspension by means 4 king pin about which it is to be steered. However, on modem cars, even the king pin.has been replaced by ball joints at the ends of the stub axle. (Fig. 8.6). . 3, WHEEL ALIGNMENT Positioning of the steered wheels to achieve the following is termed whee! alignment : 1, Directional stability during straight ahead position. 3, Recovery. after completing the turn. 4, FACTORS OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT ‘The term ‘wheel alignment’ is used in connection with the stability and control of the vehicle while in motion. Wheel alignment means FRONT «that while moving straight abead the wheels should be parallel. In the event they are pointing inward, they are said to toe in [Fig. 8.7 (a)}, whereas if they are pointing outward they are said to toe out Fig. 87 ¢ Fig. 8.7. (a) Toe-in and, (b) Toe-out.FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 197 Examining such a tyre tread would ely with the peer el locks heavily worn and the ido ring cto ; trailing side havi like appearance. Thus the result of net toc-in or toe-out of the whecly during running is sete Wear, heavy steering and also greater fuel consumption, For good steering, handling and vehicle stability, itis also necessary that : (i there should no be any set back, which is tyres (Fig. 8.8), In other words, ‘set back’ of or behind the other whee! in relation said to be the distance between the Placing of the front is a condition in which one wheel on an axle is in front to the chassis frame. A set back of less than 6 mm is considered normal tolerance by some manufacturers. Even it is specifically provided in some Vehicles, e.g., old Ford trucks with twin T-beam front axles, However, incorrect or unintended set back may often occur due to collision damage, Even excessively uneven castor may also cause setback at the front wheels, . (the thrust angle should be zero, Thrust angle is the angle made by the thrust line with the tudinal centre line ofthe vehicle (Fig 8.9). If the thrust angle isnot zero, the vehicle will ‘dog track’ and steering wheel will not be centered. When the thrust angle is zero, rear wheels follow the front wheels propetly. Obviously for this condition, all the four wheels should be parallel tothe frame, This is called tracking. THRUST LINE Zz S | | Sa Gem fF | Ce Sp il ja ee ee = => aby i } t fF tn ‘THRUST ANGLE 1 le SETBACK Fig. 88, Set back. Fig. 89. Thrust angle, To have effective steering under all conditions and at allloads, it is very important to consider and understand the factors which influence the stability and control of the vehicle. These factors are : 1. Factors pertaining to wheels 2, Steering geometry 3, Steering linkage 4, Suspension system, Out of these suspension system has already been described in the last chapter, while other factors are discussed here in the following articles. Tt may be noted that on frame type vehicles, two-wheel alignment is usually acceptable since the Measurements are taken from the frame and it is assumed that rear axle is correctly aligned. However, in case of frameless vehicles with four-wheel independent suspension, thee being no frame, the correct alignment of the rear wheels cannot be assumed, Therefore in such a case, four wheel alignment is necessary for proper steering and handling. 5. FACTORS PERTAINING TO WHEELS : 1. Balance of wheels—If the wheels are not in dynamic balance, the wheel wobble may result, which influences steering control. pp nee eee 2. Inflation of tyres—The steering system is designed for a particular rolling radius. Variation of ait Pressure from the standard prescribed will change the rolling radius,198 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 3, Brake adjustment—If the brake is not adjusted properly, ie, if itis dragging, it can pull the vehicle to one side while braking. * 6, STEERING GEOMETRY 6.1. Camber Definition—Camber is the tilt of the car wheels from the vertical. Camber is positive if the til is ‘outward at the top, Camber is also called ‘wheel rake’. Effect—It is always desirable that tyres should roll on the ground vertically so that the wear is uniform. If while running, the tyres are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward, they will wear more on one side than the other. In case of positive camber, as the vehicle tums, the outside suspension tends to rise on the wheel. When the wheel retums to straight ahead position, the weight of the vehicle presses down on the steering axis and this helps straighten the wheel. Thus positive camber aids steering wheel return after completing the tum, i., it increases straight-ahead stability. However, this also means increase of turning effort required at the steering wheel. Negative camber, on the other hand, resists the tendency of the wheel to slip sideways during cornering, but also increases the steering effort. CAMBER VERTICAL, FRONT LEFT WHEEL PLAN Fig. 8.10. Camber. Fig. 8.11. Effect of positive Camber Fig. 811 shows the positive camber on front left tyre on an exaggerated scale, in running condition. It is seen that because ofthis postive camber, the rolling radius at different points ofthe tyre tread is different 48a result of which the tyre tends to roll like a truncated cone about centre of rotation O. Thus the tendency of the wheel would be to toe out, as is made clear in the plan of Fig. 8.11. In addition, the tyre will weareek acer fhe ent ae “ oe FRONT AXLE AND STEERING o more on the outer side. In the same manner, a Negative camber will cause the front wheels 10 toc-in Toad eo i inside. Initial postive eamber is provided to the wheels so that the wher the veblole Ie loaded, they automatically come to a vertical position, Obviously the tyre life will be maximum when the camber angle in running condition is zero al average load. A positive camber causes the wheel to toe out. Therefore if the camber on the two fr Wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards the side where the camber is higher. In the url way, when the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on road which is highly crowned, it has a tendency to pull away the vehicle towards the side of the road. To obviate this in such a case the ‘ife wheel (in right hand drive Vehicles, which have to run on the left side of the roads, as in India) may be provided slightly higher camber than the left one, Similarly for left hand drive vehicles, higher camber ™1_ be provided on the left wheel, On the conventional rigid axle, the camber remains almosi fixed. However, in independent peri | usually the change of spring height changes the camber, When the camber is zero, slight irregularities the road may cause the wheel load to change from one bearing to the other, also changing the direction on the camber effect, This situation may thus cause a phenomenon called ‘wander’, * Amount— Camber should not generally exceed 2°, However, the exact amount of camber is specified taking into account the king pin inclination, Till recently the trend was to set the camber from zero to’slightly positive value to offset the effect of vehicle londing, However, with the highway speeds increasing and taking into consideration the effects (© camber may change with diferent road speeds and (i) the specifications are set forthe stationary car, the current trend is to slightly negative settings to increase vehicle stability and improve handling. As matter of fact, the effect of all the Steering geometry angles, the suspension system and even the type of tyres is considered for determining these ‘Specifications, Rear wheels usually have zero camber, but some independent rear suspensions are designed with some amount of camber, usually negative. Unequal rear camber can also affect vehicle handling, a 6.2, King Pin Inclination (Steering Axis Inclination) Definition—Inclinaion ofthe king pin from verical is called the king pin inclination or king pin rake Ql ee i STEERING AXIS INCLINATION STEERING AX’ ' 6 | KING PIM INCLINATION 7 KING PIM HNE i Fig. 8.12, King pin inclinatiea, Fig. 8.13. Steering Axis inclination, Paeaennnent200 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING (Fig. 8.12). In modern cars where the king pin has been replaced by the ball joints, this term has also been renamed as ‘Steering Axis Inclination’ and is defined as the inclination of the ball joint-axis from the + vertical (Fig. 8.13). Steering axis is an imaginary line drawn through the lower and the upper steering pivot pints. SAI is non-adjustable, since it would change only if the wheel spindle or steering knuckle are bent. Effect—King pin inclination (or steering axis inclination) helps the straight ahead recovery, thus providing directional stability. When the vehicle takes a tur, the inclination of king pin causes the vehicle body to move up, in relation to the wheels. So as soon as the steering wheel is left after the tum-is completed, the weight of the vehicle tends to return the wheels to the straight ahead position, ahora Abo 7 to 8 degrees, However, the exact amount is decided considering the wheel rake value, 6.3. Combined Angle and Scrub Radius Definition—Combined angle or included angle isthe angle formed in the vertical plane between the wheel centre line and the king pin Se ANGLE centre line (or steering axis) (Fig. 8.14). Combined angle is equal to ‘camber plus king pin inclination (or steering axis inclination). In a rear-wheel drive vehicle, the tractive force of the vehicle LA pushes the suspension cross member and the body forwards during drive, Thus the forward tractive force acts at the point on the road where the steering axis or the king pin axis meets when projected. the Toad resistance acts at the wheel contact point on the road. The distance between these two points.is called scrub radius. It is positive when the tyre centre line is inside the steering axis. It is measured in mm. The amouiit of the scrub radius depends upon the steering axis inclination, the wheel offset and suspension height. In front wheel drive vehicle, the tractive force is imparted to the front wheels so that it acts forward through the wheel contact point on the road. Thus the effect is opposite in nature to that in the rear-wheel drive described above. Effect—Fig. 8.15 shows the effect of combined angle variation on the scrub radius and hence on the forces acting to tum the wheel in case of a rear-wheel drive vehicle. It is seen that unless scrub radius is zero, a torque acts to turn the wheel away from the straight ahead position, (i) If the scrub radius is negative the wheel tends to toe-in (Fig. 8.15 (a). (ii) If the scrub radius is zero the wheel keeps its straight position, without any tendency to toc-in or toe-out. [Fig. 8.15 (b)]. In this position, the steering is called centre point steering. Previously the centre point steering was considered ideal to achieve, but now ithas been proved by experience that best results are obtained in practice if the point of intersection of the wheel and the king pin centre lines is slightly below the ground. In case the centre. point steering is adopted, any small change in the combined angle under variable running conditions will cause the point of intersection to over alternately above and below the ground, thus causing toe-in of toe-out, which will become a source of car wander. However, a large scrub radius will cause greater torque to be required to turn the wheel which means higher loads on the steering linkage and suspension components. This would result in greater wear of steering linkage. The effect of unequal braking on the front wheels would also be enhanced with a large scrub radius, which would make the driving dangerous. If the included angle and hence the amount of toc-out is not equal on both the wheels, the vehicle will ‘obviously have a tendency to pull towards the side having the larger scrub radius. Fig, 8.14. Combined Angle.FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 801 INO PIM INO 91N TRACTIVE th ROAD TRACTIVE § ROAD ROAD / TRACTIVE FORCE RESISTANCE FORCE | testerance resistance} t EFFORT hr -_~ @) (b) (© Fig, 8.15: Bffec of combined angle variation in rear wheel drive vehicle, The point of intersection of the wheel and king pin centre lines (a) above the ground (negative scrub radius)—tendency to toe-in, (b) just at the ground (Zero scrub radius)—no effect and (¢) below the ground (positive scrub radius)—tendency to toe-out. As the driving and handling sensations come from the road and the tyre, the scrub. radius is the Parameter to provide necessary road feel to the drive, Amount—Combined angle may be 9-10 degrees and the scrub radius should be upto about 12 mm. Front wheel drive vehicles usually have negative scrub radius. However, scrub radius is set at the factory and is not adjustable, 6.4, Castor Definition—The angle between the king pin centre line (or steering axis) and the vertical, in the plane of the wheel is called the castor angle. Ifthe king pin centre line meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line, as is shown in Fig. 8.16, i i called positive castor while tf itis behind the vertical wheel centre line, itis called negative castor, Effect— In rear-wheel drive vehicles, the steering axis pulls the front tyres, whereas the tyre drag on account of the vehicle weight is on the vertical line atthe centre of the footprint. Since in positive castor steering axis would meet the ground ahead of the centre of tyre print, the later would always follow the former. Thus positive castor on the car wheels provides directional stability, ie, straight line trackings is improved. This can be understood by considering the similar castor effect provided on the furnitare rollers (Fig. 8.17) and on the front wheels ofthe bicycles (Fig. 8.18). In both cases a positive castor is provided. This causes the wheel to be pulled in any direction. The wheel simply follows the king pin which has some lead over the former. However, positive castor increases the effort required to turn the steering wheel. It may be noted that incase of negative castor steering would be unstable, ie, there would be oor directional contro, as the centre ofthe tyre print lead the steering axis in that ease, Extremely negative castor would cause wheel shimmy and consequently cupped wear of front tyres. However; compared to castor. the effect of SAI or KPI‘on directional stability is greater. Therefore, poor stability caused by negative castor is overcome by using SAI. Positive castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide the required retumabilty, since the higher effort required to steer the wheels is provided by power steering. On the other hand with manual steering, SAI with negative or very small positive castor is used,mez AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING Faoat ‘OF CAR Fig 8.16. Castor It cam be visualised easily that in a vehicle with Positive castor on front wheels, the body is lifted up a8 the front wheels toe-cut and it is lowered when these. toc-in. The positive castor in the wheels, therefore, results matural tendency in the wheels to tein The negative castor would have the opposite effect, ie. the wheels will tend to toe-out. Is case both wheels have the same positive castor, both will have equal tendencies to toe-in, which will be balanced by each other, because track rod is provided to maintain the distance between the wheels rigidly. However, if the castor at the two wheels is not equal, the tendency to toe-in at the wheel with larger castor will be more which will cause the vehicle to pull constantly towards the side of the wheel with lesser castor. Castor has another effect also. When the vehicle having positive castor takes a turn, the outer side of exsren the vehicle is lowered while the inner one is raised, Le, positive castor helps the centrifugal force in Fig. 8.18. Castor on front wheet of bicycle. rolling out the vehicle. Negative castor tends to ‘roll-in’ the vehicle i, the effect of centrifugal force is counteracted. ‘As the steering axis position changes with the attitude of the vehicle body, overloading or weak springs ‘will change castor angle. When the body is lower at the rear, castor will increase, enhancing the directional stability and thus the steering effort. On the other hand when the body is lower at the front, castor angle and hence directional stability will be reduced, which will result in poor vehicle control. The castor angle and the camber angle are interrelated in that when a wheel is turned towards the centre of the vehicle, the ‘camber angle is reduced in direct proportion to the amount of the castor angle provided on the wheel. ThsFRONT AXLE AND STEERING ene messing the castor ange fom measurement of change of camber when the wheel x (hrough a inown angle, AS the change of castor angle result in the change of the other angles of the Steering geometry, j she dot ination and ten or oon its vey impr at isang sad feo While doing the adjustment job. Amount—About 3° of castor gives good resulis, 6.5. Toe-in or Toe-out ; oe the wheel may be set closer atthe rear than = “ o a he front in wihich case the difference of the distances between the front wheels atthe front and at the rear is called toe-out ae Effect—There is ‘Usually an inherent for the wheels to toe-out in Tear- oa wheel drive vehicles because of purposeful Geviation from centre point steering. and o also due to errors in steering angles of the inner and outer wheels on moderate bends. oe To offset this tendency a small amount of (oe-in initially provided in such vehicles so that the wheels move perfectly straight ‘ a head under normal runni i a | running conditions, ; However, in case of some front wheel drive Fig. 8.19. Toe-in, "hice, initial toe-out has been provided to counter the tendency Amount—Toe-in initially provided generally does not exceed 66, Toe-change or Bump-steer to toe-in present therein, 3mm. 7. CORRECT STEERING ANGLE ‘The perfect steering is achieved when all the four wheels are rolling Perfectly under all conditions of “ running. While taking tums (Fig. 8.20), the condition of Perfect rolling is satisfied if the axes of the front ee | i is the inside wheel is required to tum through a greater angle than the outer wheel. baie ecteee the smaller isthe turing ice. There is, however, a maximum to which we Gan go as regards the tering angle I hasbeen found ta teeing angle (of the inner wheel) can have a maximum value of abou 44". The exeme positions on citer side are cal ‘oc’ postions, The diameter of the smallest circle which the outer front whee ofthe car can averse and obtained when the wheels are 4 ther exteme position is mown as the ting circle. For example, in case ot Hindustan Ambasader ‘ar, turing cicle on right hand lock is 10.83 m, while on left hand lock itis 10.74 m. For Tata £/52, tuning circle diameter is 21.6 m.| 2 | 3 ‘3 a | WHEEL TRACK- E Fig. 8.20. Correct steering angle, Referring to Fig. 8.20, for correct steering, - a. cag = 258 (@ = angle of outside lock) apt pr cers (8 = angle of inside lock) s cot @ — cot@ (8.1) Eason 8.) epee te cnn fore seng meni pi ig fa wheels, Farther, the tuming circle rai for diferent wheels can also be written fom Fig, 8.20 as follows: (@ For the inner front wheel, b fa-c =s5 (4*) (82) (ii) For the outer front wheel, Rog = ae + (4) (83) iii) For the inner rear wheel, ag sae eat @4) no [2 ie (iv) For the outer rear wheel, pe & ' ical (85) In the above equations, a = wheel track Example 8.1. The wheel base of a car is 2.7 m and pivot centres are at 1 metre, The wheel track isFRONT AXLE AND STEERING ws 1.2 m. Calculate the correct angle of outside lock and turing circle radius of it wheels when the angle of inside lock is 40°. ee eee Solution. . ‘Wheel base. b=27m Pivot centre c=10m ‘Wheel track a=12m Angle of inside lock @ = 40° (@ If @ is the correct angle of outside lock, then from equation (8.1), 10 ot @ — =o Cot ~ cot 40° = 57 cog = 156 @ = 326 (i) Taming circle radius of outer front wheel, Ror From ion (8.3), = zat 12-10 eee ae ace (ii) Tuming circle radius of inner rear wheel, Rig . 27 12-10 Fro 4), =a top mequaion(84), Re= 27» 2-1 sm It is also. observed that when all the wheels are rotating about one instantaneous centre; the front Wheels toe out because of different tuming angles. This is known as ‘1oe-out on turns’ as distinguished from simple ‘toe-out’ which refers to the wheels in the straight ahead position. Wheel alignment specifications usually provide the measurement for toe out on tums. They would specify the value of the angle for the inside wheel for a given angle of the outside wheel and is always equal in both the right as well as left directions. Toe out on tums is not adjustable, but can go wrong due to bending of steering arm, which has to be replaced. 8. STEERING MECHANISM ‘We have already seen that for perfect steering we must always have an instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must rotate, For this purpose inner wheel has to tun more than the outer wheel. To achieve this condition, two types of mechanisms, have been devised, viz, the Davis and the Ackermann steering mechanisms. Out of these Ackermann mechanism is almost universally used because of its simplicity. 8.1. Ackermann Mechanism Fig. 8.21 (@) shows this mechanism. Links RA and SB are integral with the stub axles, These links are connected with each other through track rod AB. When the vehicle is in straight ahead position these links make equal angles o. with the centre line of the car. The dotted lines indicate the position of the mechanism when the car is turning left. In Fig. 8.21 (b) the details of the mechanism are shown on enlarged scale. Let [= length of track rod. and r= length of links RA and SB. A ing Fig. 8.21 (b) and neglecting the obliquity of the track rod in the tumed position, Foe Fo Ge tania cies tisy eke bs cave (a OC) yer r 2=8 r Then sin (a + 0) = os sin(a - 9) =26 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING @ Bae © Fig. 8.21. Ackermann steering mechanism. (2) outline ot mechanism, (8) details on enlarged scale. Adding, sin a + @) + sin(a ~ 9) = = 2sina (8.6) ‘The mechanism gives only 3 positions for correct steering; one when @ = 0 and the other two each corresponding to the tur to right or left (at a fixed tuming angle). However, for other angles also it gives 2 close approximation to the ideal condition. Further this has the advantage that it employs pivots and not sliding constrains, due to which reason its maintenance is easier. That is why it is universally employed. However, lately the automobile designers do not care to follow the Ackermann mechanism very strictly on account of the improvement in the suspension and tyres. Any small deviation from the true rolling angles can be readily corrected by the tyres sidewall flexibility and tread distortion. Rather itis endeavoured to obtain the smallest value of the turning circle, Tt may be noted that while parking, itis easier to steer a vehicle in reverse than inthe forward direction because the rear wheels tum on smaller radius than the front wheels. Example 8.2. The front axle ofa car has pivot centres 1.1 m apart. The length of each steering arm is 150 mim, while the track rod is of 1.0 metre length, Calculate the wheelbase for perfect rolling of the car wheels when the inner wheel stub axle is at 55° to the rear centre line. Solution. Referring Fig. 8.21 (a), @=9 - 25 = 35° r= 150mm - 0.15m 1=10m c=1im sma = St 18 = 0333 a =19.45° From Equation (8.6). sin (19.48° + 35°) + sin (19.45°- 9) = 2sin 19.45° ie. B14 + sin(19.45° - 9) = 667FRONT AXLI AND ATURIING ‘ oe 9 Prom equation (8.1), C01 27,9" = cot 48% « dd Ll ity 1H ~ 1428 » 4 Whoo! baso, b = 2.3940 9% CORNERING FORCE, ‘While taking a turn the conteituy igal force acts on the vehicle which Produces a side thrust, Ty rain What force the plane of the Whoo! must make some ‘angle with the direction of motion Of the vehicle, ‘This is e oineeyion ; mM Hon * SUIPANGL 6 e al Py q 3 3 9 i fo (A Fe ; 8 ‘SLIP ANGLE INFLATION PRESSURE ‘ Fig. 8.22, Comering force Fig. 8.23. Effect of ‘slip angle Fig. 8.24. Effect of inflation 4 and slip angle, on comering force, For the same slip angle, position camber increas while negative camber decreases it, The alteration in the comering force, due to camber is commonly referred to ‘camber ‘force’, Side force sustained i Sch force sustained ‘The ratio slip angle 18 called the cornering power. ‘The effect of slip an igle, inflation pressure and lyre load on the Fig. 8.25. Et comering force has been shown in Figs, 8.23 to 8.25, es the cornering force CORNERING FORCE TYRE LOAD ffect of tyre load onw~wwvewe 208 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 1€ SELF-RIGHTING TORQUE On closely examining Fig, 8.22, it is seen that the comering force produced does not act in line with + the side thrust, rather it acts at a distance ‘x’ (called pneumatic trail) from the line of the side thrust. Thus the situation becomes equivalent to what has been shown in Fig. 8.26. It is seen that because of torque T = comering force x pneumatic trail), a tendency is always present to bring back the wheel in the direction fovregzow + MoTion SELF _RIGHTING ToRQUE SLIP ANGLE Fig. 8.26, Self-tighting torque Fig. 8.27, Effect of slip angle on self-righting torque. of motion. Due to this reason, this torque is called the self-righting torque. It increases with increase in slip angle to some maximum value beyond which it starts decreasing (Fig. 8.27). Fig. 8.28 shows relation between comering force and self-righting torque for different values SUPANGLES of slip angles. Fig. 8.29 shows the effect of camber angle in shifting the comering force versus self-righting torque curve. Sor aignTNG Value of the castor angle affects the self- righting torque by addition or subtraction, as the case may be, of a castor trail to the pneumatic trail as shown in Fig. 8.30. Total self-righting torque is then equal to Comering Force x (Pneumatic Trail + Castor Trail), ie 11. UNDERSTEER AND OVERSTEER During tums, centrifugal force acts on the wheels. Two cases can arise : (® When the slip angles of the front wheels Fig 28. Relation between Concerning force and are greater than those for the rear wheels, Self-righting Torque. TORQUEFRONT AXLE AND STEERING OiRection OF MOTION Fig. 8.29. Effect of Camber Angle on Comering Fig. 8.30. Effect of Castor of Self-righting Torque, force versus Self righting Torque curve, lm slip angle, = camber angle. as in Fig. 8.31 (a) (which for instance, may be due to lower inflation pressure at the front than at the rear wheels or when cross-ply tyres are used at the front with radial-ply tyres at the rear), radius Of the tum is increased. This means that the vehicle will tur less sharply than it should for a given rotation of the steering wheel. In other words the vehicle will try to move away from its normal direction of motion and therefore to keep it on the right path, we shall have to steer a little more than is theoretically needed. This condition is called understeer and is shown more clearly in Fig. 8.32 (a). (ii) When the slip angles ofthe front wheels are less than those of the rear wheels, as in Fig. 8.31 (6), ‘radius of the turn is decreased. This means that the vehicle will tum more sharply than it should for ‘a given rotation of the steering wheel. In other works, the vehicle will try to move from its normal direction of motion and therefore to keep it on the right path we shall have to steer a little less than is theoretically needed. This condition is called oversteer and is depicted more clearly in Fig. 8.32 ©. ‘The above explanation of the understeer and oversteer conditions is equally valid even when the vehicle is going straight and is subjected to side force due to road camber or some cross-wind. Out of these two, understeer is comparatively less undesirable, though both are unwanted, because the river reacts naturally and positively by steering in the desired direction. In the case of oversteer, he is always conscious of losing the control and therefore greater care is required. That is why many more Powerful cars have on-board computer systems which can automatically brake the wheels or override the driver's throttle inputs to prevent un understeer conditions. However, in many sports cars, there is a Provision to allow such system to be tumed off completely by experienced drivers so that they may ‘oversteer on purpose while negotiating curves at high speeds. Due to this reason, generally the vehicles are designed to provide understeer conditions at normal210 Som oF ROTATION, WITH SUP ANGLE=o (a) Understeer WITH SUP ANGLE = of (B) Oversteer Fig. 8.31. Understeer and Oversteer. speeds. But at higher speeds, the situation changes first to neutral steer and then to oversteer, That is why at higher speeds where the driver has less time to take corrective action, a sharp transition from understeer to oversteer is particularly dangerous. In fact, in oversteering vehicles, this transmission is characterized by an instability mode, called the critical speed. As this speed approaches, the steering becomes gradually more sensitive, till at critical speed, the yaw velocity gain becomes infinite, which means the vehicle will continue to tum with the wheel straight ahead. Understeering cars do not suffer from this disadvantage. ‘That is why high speed cars are usually set up to understeer. Mot ofthe divers lave a maura teeny to kh tes f6t off he acolo peal during Joss of steering control due to oversteer, which is the exactly opposite of what is desirable in case of a rear-wheel drive vehicle, Releasing the throttle causes the car to pitch forward causing weight transfer from rear t0 front, aggravating the oversteer and reducing the traction even further.PRONT AXLE AND STHERING { ; Fig. 8.32. (a) Understeer, (b) Oversteer. Regarding brakes, firstly for braking, the driver has to lift his/her foot off the accelerator pedal, aggravating oversteer as explained above, and secondly during braking there is weight transfer from rear to ‘ron, agnin adding to oversier. Yet, most modem cars are given a brake bias which counteracts the tendency to oversteer on applying brakes, Overseerng is prefered in racing cas, which enables the driver to accelerate eatly as the car passes the apex of a comer, thus gaining extra speed on the following straight, 12. STEERING LINKAGES Steering linkage depends upon the typeof the vehicle, whether itis a car which has independent front fusension or a commercial vehicle having generally a rigid axle type front suspension. Each of these ‘The steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required at the steering Wheel to apply a much larger force to the steering link . Moreover it ired velocity Tato go that much smaller movement ofthe stub axles buon neato tum the later about its pivot, which may be a kis pin or ball joints, it track rod, Thus only one wheel is positively siesre. Joints, The other wheet is steered through212 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING STEERING ARM stg AXLE BEAM AXLE TRACK ROO (THe Roo) TRACK ROO ENO JOINT LINK ROD STEERING 80x (orac Link) ORAG LINK BALL JOINT STEERING COLUMN ORIVE SRAFT OROP ARM (PITMAN) STEERING WHEEL STEERING COLUMN ‘STEERING BOX ROP ARM (PITMAN ARM) SUA ORAG LINK (LINK ROD) E- HEROD ADJUSTER FRONT Fig. 8.34. Steering linkage for rigid axle suspension.FRONT AXLE AND STEERING us TRACK ROD. Fig. 8.35. Ball joint. 12.2, Steering linkage for vehicle with independent front suspension » In case of conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beamn ensures the movement of stub axle in the horizontal plane only. In this therefore, there is no vertical deflection of the suspension and hence there is no change in effective track-rod length. However, in the case of independent suspension, the two Fig. 8.36. Various tie rod ends. (Courtesy—GNA Udyog Ltd.)214 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING stub axles can move up or down independent ofeach other du to which distance between blljoints ends : joints e of the two track and armi is continuously varying. On account of this : i _system described above, cannot be used. a single track rod as in conventional TIE aos RELAY ROO Fig. 8.37. Steering linkage for independent suspension, Fig. 8.37 depicts one linkage for independent sus- pension where the above difficulty is avoided. Here three-piece track rod is used, the centre portion being called the relay rod, which is connected at one end to an idler arm supported on body structure and to the drop arm of the steering gear at the other end through ball joints. ‘The relay rod is restricted to move in horizontal plane only. Movement in vertical plane is provided by the outer portion, viz, the tie rods about the end ball joints. 13. STEERING GEARS The steering gear con- verts the turning motion of the steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the link stecris linkage. Fig. 8.38. Outside view of a steering gear. sad feces Ea: (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, G.M., U.S.A.)FRONT AXLE AND STEERING oe Moreover, it also provides the necessary leverage so that the diver is able to steer the vehicle wit fate, ‘o .__ There are many types and makes of steering gears in use for automobiles, However, only a few Important ones out of them are discussed here. The working of the other types is also similar’ 13.1, Worm and wheel steering gear Fig. 8.39 gives a simplified diagram of the worm and wheel gear. The movement of the steering wheel tums the worm, which in tum drives the worm wheel. Attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of the steering wheel corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm end, R which is connected to the link wor \\_- WORM WHEE! rod as has already been dis- “ORMAXIS 4 o cussed. In place of worm wheel, only a sector is also sometimes used, but the complete wheel has an advantage over the later in that in this case back lash due to wearing out of the teeth of the worm and wom wheel can be easily adjusted. For this purpose the worm wheel is mounted over an eccentric bush, When the teeth have worn out, the problem Fig. 8.39, Worm and wheel steering gear. ‘ : ts . : : lies ute up the wear. This is done by rotating the bush though a centn angle. Fig. 840), w preen? tH. ve AKI OF WORM + ) @ es Fig. 840, Adjustment of backl sai (@) position before adjustment, (6) position after full adjustment 13.2, Cam and double roller steering gear 4 vehicles in India, ts working in PPPPPPP®D “This type of steering gear is employed in Ashok Leylan icles is 24.7 iB sng ratio as used in these vehicles is ibed above : the steering ratio as worm wheel type descrilAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING » Fig. 8.41. Marles cam and double Fig. 8.42. Worm and nut type roller type steering gear. . steering gear. 13.3. Worm and nut steering gear > The construction of a worm and nut type of steering gear is shown simplified in Fig. 8.42. Again the steering wheel rotation rotates the worm which in turn moves the nut along its length. This causes the drop arm end to move linearly, further @® moving the link rod and thus steering the wheels. @ 13.4. Recirculating Ball Type Steering Gear This type of gear was perhaps the most widely used steering gear at 2 one time. In India, it has been used in the Tata, Dodge/Fargo, Standard 20 vehicles. It consists of a worm at the ® 504 of steering rod (Fig. 8.43), A nut is mounted on the worm with two @@ cts of balls in the grooves of the worm, in between the nut and the @ worm. The balls reduce the friction during the movement of the nut on the worm. The nut has a number of D iccth on the outside, which mesh with the teeth sector, on which is further mounted the drop arm, which gu Pay steers the road wheels through the gp link rod and the steering arms. Fig. 8.43, Recirculating Ball type steering gear. SGECCECECT EE EXanaes FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 27 ‘When the steering wheel is turned, the alls inthe worm roll in the grooves and cause the nut to travel along the length of the worm. The balls, which are in 2 sets, are recirculated through the guides, as shown in the figure, The movement of the nut causes the wheel sector to turn at an angle and actuate the link rod through the drop arm, resulting in the desired steering of the wheels, The end play of the worm can be adjusted by means ofthe adjuster nut provided. To compensate for the wear of the teeth on the nut and the worm, the two have to be brought nearer bodily. To achieve this the teeth on the nut are made tapered inthe plane perpendicular tothe plane Fig. 8.43. A screw is also provided by means of which the drop arm, and hence, the wheel sector can be positioned along its axis. When the wheel sector has to be moved bodily closer to the nut to eliminate backlash due to wear, the screw is tuned which slides the wheel sector in a direction in which the tapered teeth on the nut are narrower, tll the required adjustment is achieved. 13.5. Rack and pinion steering gear : This type is steering gear is used,on light vehicles like cars and in power steering, Maruti 800 cars employ this steering gear (Fig. 8.44), It is simple, light and responsive. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkage components compared to the worm and wheel type of gear. 1. Steering whee! 2, Steering shaft —~ ae 3, Steering shaft joint ES 4, Steering pinion a 5. Steeting gear case 6. Tie rod 17. Steering knuckle Fig. 8.44, Rack and pinion steering system (Courtesy—Maruti Udyog Lid,, India) Fig. 845 shows the rack and pinion type of stering gear (end takeoff type) alongwith is linkage. The rotary motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion of the steering gear through universal joints (not shown). The pinion is in mesh with a rack. The circular motion of the pinion is transferred into the linear rack movement, which is further relayed through the ball joints and tie rods to the stub axles for the wheels to be steered. Such a steering gear is shown at the bottom in Fig. 8.46. Another design of this type of steering gear is shown at the top in Fig. 8.46 in which the tie rods are connected at the centre of the rack instead of at the ends. This is called the centre take off rack. It has a large boot that covers the centre part of the rack ad pinion housing. A slot in the housing permits the inner tie rod ends to move with the rack. This type, viz, the centre take off design can be mounted high, saving space and shortening the length of218 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING SWIVEL PIN STUB AXLE: Tie ROD: ARM BALL JOINT Fig. 8.45. Rack and pinion steering gear the steering colunin. Compared withthe end take off design, this is also affected less by bump steer. When the toe of wheels changes as they go over a bump or through a depression on the end, the vehicle is said to have bump steer. Fig. 8.46, Saginaw Rack and pinion steering gears Fig. 847. Ting the pinion axis. Top-centre take off, Bottom-end take off. ‘The tooth profiles of both the pinion as well as the rack are ofthe involute form so that side profile of the pinion teeth is curved. However, the side profile of the rack teth is straight line its pitch cirle being a straight line. Helical teth are invariably employed so tat the teeth engage progressively and some Contadt between the teeth is always there, due to which the gears can operate smoothly and quietly and can withstand higher loads compared to the spur gears. The pinion is placed generally tiled tothe direction of Tack travel (Fig. 847), which increases the effective pitch radius for a given movement of the rack, on recount of which stronger and smaller number of teth are required, Moreover, forthe given rack travel farger gear ratio can be used. However, on account of helix angle and the ion of pinion-axis, sliding teton is introduced between the teth which increases friction and hence teth-wea. ut this also provides damping so that road wheel shocks are not transmitted back tothe stering wheel :FRONT AXLE AND STEERING Let 1, = radius ofthe steering wheel radius of the pinion pitch-circle e imber of teeth on pinion ti = circular pitch of the pinion e near pitch of the rack, ‘Then for one revolution of steering whecl the input movement atthe Steering wheel, x; = 2nr, @y and the output movement at the rack, x) = 27, = T x p e Movement ratio, MR = Also, MR = é If there is no friction in the pears, E = —— Output load at the rack ea Movement ratio, ~ inpot effort at the steering wheel be. MR = % Example 83. The steering wl *heel diameter of a car using rack and pinion type of steering gear mm. Calculate the pitch circle diameter of the pinion to overcome a resistance of TKN at the rack, with ar effort of 50 N applied at the steering wheel, Solution. Let pitch circle radius of the pinion be 75 mm Steering wheel radius, r, = 150mm ‘. Movement ratio from Eq. (8.7) is, MR = 12 2 Output resistance atthe rack W’= 1000 N (given) and input effort at the Steering wheel, E = 50N . From Eq. (89), 150, 1000 50 which gives, x» = 7.5 mm ce. pitch circle diameter of the pinion 14, STEERING RATIO =75x2= 15mm ‘The steering ratios generally used with the present day steering gears very from about 12 : | for il to about 35 : | for heavy vehicles, ‘An average overall ratio usually gives about one and a half complete turns of the steering whee! iil Side of mid-positon to apply a full lock of 45 degree each way on the front wheels, 15. REVERSIBILITY ™ A steering gear is said to be reversible if by turning of stub axles, it is possible to tum the ‘wheel. This can be made irreversible by making the Pitch angle of the screw used very less. Irreversi has both its advantage, and disadvantage.- D 20 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING db = Advantage st does not have ‘The road shocks are not transmitted to the steering wheel and for that reason the drive: to-experience the ‘kicks' atthe steering wheel. Disadvantage ) Due to large amount of friction present in the irreversible system. the forward efficiency is also very law and consequently steering operation becomes quite heavy. Previously irreversibility was considered desirable and it was endeavoured to achieve this. day designs are almost all semi-reversible. ) 16. SPECIAL STEERING COLUMNS Special steering columns have been employed in many cars which prov ) to the driver. Various types which shall be discussed here are : 1. Energy absorbing steering column 2. Tilt wheel steering column 3. Tilt and telescopic steering column ) 4. Steering column with anti-theft lock, But present ide safety and case of operation 16.1. Energy absorbing steering columri Energy absorbing or collapsible steering column provides safety by collapsing during impact in a front-end crash. Two types of collapsible steering columns manufactured by Saginaw Steering Gear ) Division of the General Motors, U.S.A. have been shown in Fig. 8.48. Mesh type column was introduced on all 1967 model G.M. cars, while the ball type column was introduced in 1969. This column incorporates ) ball bearings fitted between two overlapping tubes. These tubes groove-in under impact resulting in an elficieri¢y energy absorption (Fig. 8.49). Figs. 8.50, 8.51 and 8.52 show some other such steering columns used in Alfa Romeo, Mercedes Benz and Audi cars respectively. ’ y b HS oe , , ‘ , , ’ ‘es “ iia é ete i , Fig. 8.48. Mesh type Jacket and Ball ype Jacket collapsible steering columns. ‘(Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, GM., U.S.A.)FRONT AXLE AND STEERING Beakincs @ ® Fig. 8.49. Working of a ball type collapsible steering column, Fig. 8.50, Collapsible steering column (@ Before collapse, (b) After collapse. (Courtesy—Alpha Remeo s,p.. Italy) Fig, 8.51. Collapsible steering column with corrugated deformable section. ‘(Courtesy—Daimler Benz A.G., Germany)AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 222 The safey steering column of the Audi 50. Sleering column telescopes on dmpact, Fig. 8.52 Telescopic safety steering column. {Courtesy Vollswagenverk Germany) Fig. 8.53. Tit wheel steering column, (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, USA) 16.2. Tilt wheel steering column ‘This type of steering allows the driver to tilt the steer it while driving, the driver can adjust it at convenient angle. This can be done easily by releasing a lever on plac nck te steeng column and moving the whee nto the desed posaoe: eo es eee Place, Intemal steering shaft for such a steering column is shown in Fig. 8.54.FRONT AXLE AND STEERING erat Fig. 8.54, Internal steering shaft for tilt column. (Courtesy—XLO India Ltd.) 16.3. Tilt and telescopic steering column This type of steering has all the features of the tilt wheel convenience of telescopic steering which adds to driver's comfort. The steering wheel. Both telescopic and tilting adjustments can be made with n seering explained above in addition to = telescopic motion is under 0 loss of steering control. "on Fig. 8.55. Tilt and telescopic steering column, (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, G.M., U.S.A.) 164. Stegring column with anti-theft lock This type of arrangement provides additional safety against theft. By simply turni igniti lock positon and removing the key, te ignition and seeing wheel and on some meciee een te lever of the transmission, are locked simultaneously. In Maruti 800 car the steering lock is teat ae the ignition key is removed and the stering wheel is tured to one extreme, the stering ger locked. When the ignition key is inserted in its slot and tuned, the lock is off. e + When 17. POWER STEERING oe Larger amount of torque is required to be applied by the driver for steer i vehicles The power nceringsytom provides aoraic hyanlicatstancete etter er, the manual stering system. The power system is designed to become operative when the effort o wheel exceeds a predetermined value, say 10 N. The system is always so designed that in the event of the feilure, ‘of the power system, the driver is able to steer the vehiclé manually although with increased effort. Fij 8.57 shows atypical hydraulic power steering system installed on a car. =Y 204 ‘AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 1 The power steering has distinct advantages over the manual steering : } + L.The steering effort is considerably reduced. For example, a 16 ton truck can ) be steered as easily as a modem small car. ‘Due to this the driver remains alert even at the end of the day. . The vehicle can be steered lock to lock : with approximately one and a half y steering wheel tums on either side compared to more than 3 tums on either ) side in case of manual gears. With this high degree .of steering response, the Y ’ driver gets excellent maneuverability even in highly congested traffic. 3. The hydraulics of the power steering i : te ’ system absorbs the road shocks whereas Fig. 8.56. Steering column with anti-theft lock. incase of manual stering, the shocks due (C2Mes)—Saginaw Stering Gear Division, G.M., USA) to potholes and humps are transmitted to the steering wheel. Thus in a power-steered vehicle, there ps is less driver-fatigue. y SRREENS » UY » : ‘ Fig. 8.57. Power steering system installed on a car. . » (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, G.M., U.S.A.) 4, In a manually steered vehicle, tyre failures arid maladjusted brakes often cause violent vehicle pull , to either side, Since the effort required and the response is poor, the driver is often unable to avert accident. However, in case of power steering, the hydraulics resists such deviations from the course of the vehicle and whatever minor course-corrections are required, can be made quickly and effortlessly. Thus power steering leads to greater safety. Most power steering systems are operated by fluid under pressure. The fluids usually used are oils of D viscosity rating SAE 5 W or SAE 10 W or higher depending upon atmospheric conditions. The systems ‘operate under fairly high pressures which may be as much as 7MPa. ‘The principle of working of all the power steering systems is same. The slight movement of theFRONT AXLE AND STEERING 225 Steering whee! actuates valve so that the fuid under pressure from the reservoir enters on the appropriate Side of a cylinder, thereby applying pressure on one side of a piston to operate the steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction. | Conventional power steering systems, no longer in use, have an engine accessory belt to drive the fluid pump. In electro-hydraulic power steering systems, the fluid HYDRAULIC PUMP ASSEMBLY Pump is driven electrically by a ‘motor. Pump speed is regulated by oi Bm oe an electric controller to vary pump oy tree, Pressure and flow, providing CimRar steering efforts suited for different done *Y driving situations. Direct electric RETURN LINE Tie steering uses an electric motor attached to the steering rack via a on gear mechanism. There is ro Pump ot fluid. A microprocessor cca dynamics and Pressure HOSE Broadly, the power steerings icone are classified into two categories viz, the integral type and the STEERING GEAR non-integral or the linkage type. ASSEMBLY In the former the power steering assembly is an integral part of the steering gear whereas in the linkage type it is a part of the linkage. The integral steering is the most common non-electronic: Power steering system -in. use today, The main components of an integral power steering system consist of a hydraulic pump asse- bly and a steering gear assembly ao i ig. 8.58. Layout of an integral power steering system, connected by means of hoses (Fig, (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division USA) 8.58). A rotary valve power steer- ing gear for the integral system using recirculating ball ype worm and wheel steering gear is shown in Fig. 8.59. The same is shown by means of a simplified diagram in Fig. 8.60, The steering wheel is connected to the right end of the torsion bar through the steering shaft. The other end of the torsion bar is ‘connected to the worm and also to the spool about which the rotary valve is centered, When the driver applies a force on the steering wheel to steer, the far end of the torsion bar, being connected to the spool of the rotary valve and the worm offers resistance. When the force at the wheel exceeds a Predetermined value, the spool tums through a small angle, when the return line is closed and the fluid under pressure goes to one side to the rack piston and moves it to effect steering in'the desired direction, The torsion bar is meant to give a feel of the steering to the driver. The rotation of the steering whcel in the opposite direction connects the other side ofthe steering gear to the pressure line. In the ncutral ster position both sides ofthe piston (nut) are shut off to the pressure line and so they are at the same Pressure but the return line is open duc to which |ING AUTOMOBILE ENGINEER! PRESSURE A e € Ka. PPP WEE EA RSE Fig. 8.60. Rotary valve type power steering gear. thy fi goes on circulating through the valve without causing any scering effect. The action ofthe rotary valve is made clear by means of Fig. 8.61 Fig. 8.61. Diagram showing action of » rotary valve. (2) mecsing in neutral, (6) steering inaction to turn rightFRONT AXLE AND STEERING The amount of flow which is directed to any one side of the piston is proportional to the Speed at which steering wheel is being tumed, ‘ure required to complete a Steering maneuver depends upon the amount of resistance presented by the steered wheels. The Control valve senses these Tequirements and Supplies fluid to the Piston si Tae and pressure. As fluid is so supplied, the rack piston moves axially rotating the whee! sector and thus steering the wheels, The worm is now able to rotate in response to the force being applied by the torsion bar, When the Steering has been completed, the effort on the fleering wheel is relaxed and the torsion bar brings the control valve to its neutral postion, A semi-integral ‘system for power steering of medium and heavy duty trucks has bees shown in Fig. 8.62, It consists of a control valve, power cylinder and a hydraulic pump used in conjunction with steering gear. The Ne worm and ball nut type mechanical steering oa Bear is used in conjunction with the control Fig, £62, Sem-intgral power sting sytem, e valve. (Countesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, USA) Hydraulic flow and pressure is supplied by : eo the pump fo the control valve which in tum directs and metres this flow and pressure to the end of the Power cylinder. The control valve is of the rotary type discussed above. ‘The power cylinder which acts as “Power assist to the mechanical steering is shown in ig 8.63. When ther ver tre ne Steering wheel, Qu Retroction Port Fig. 8.63. Typical power cylinder oil flow. a (Courtesy—Saginaw Steering Gear Division, U.S.A.) | valve on the steering gear housing directs hydraulic power steering fluid under pressure from be aul ump, to either side of a piston in the power cylinder, depending upon whether a left or right a tum is to be made. This produces movement of the piston and attached steering linkage. a After the tum is completed, the front wheels are retumed to straight ahead position on account of the Steering geometry. When returning to neutral position, oil on one side of the Piston is forced back to the Pump reservoir by oil on the other side of the piston. This constant amount of oil in the cylinder acts as a i the steering wheel, eet valve type steering gear which can be used for such a semi inte; ype w oe ees inFig 8.64, The working ofthis stering gear is seni to aes Saginaw serng gear explained already in that its working is also based on torsion bar. Here unto ing pr ae vided in the power piston which trip as steered whecls approach the extreme position and Piee ee er tee ee ect ete rete end of its stroke. The position at which unload- ing valves trip can be changed by means of adjusting screws. In an electronic power steering system, steering sensor consisting of in fact two sensors, viz, a ‘torque sensor’ that converts the steering torque input and its direction into voltage signals, and a ‘rotation sensor’ that converts the rotation speed and direction into voltage signals, is located on the input shaft of the steering gear box. Inputs from the steering sensor and the vehicle speed sensor are fed to a microprocessor control unit where these are compared with a preprogrammed force assist map, The control unit then sendsvout the appropriate command signal to the current controller which supplies AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING Fig..8.64. Hydraulic power steering gear HFB 70. 1. Rotary valve, 2. Roller bearing, 3. Wheel sector, 4. Unloading valve, 5. Recirculating ball nut, 6. Dirt and water seat, 7. Torsion bar. (Courtesy—Ross Gear Division, TRW etc., U.S.A.) Fig. 8.65. Electronic power steering system.| FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 29 puase Assist gytnenr teenie COMPENSATOR Na OMTADLLEN MOTOR 44,5, Tonaue : “Ld 1 COMPENSATOR SERV Fig. 8.66, Electronic ‘Steering control unit. the appropriate current to the electric motor, The motor pushes the rack tothe right or left depending on in which direction the current flows, Increasing the curent tothe motor increases tre wncavt of power assist, There is & provision to protect the elecvic motor from being overloaded and also from the voltages Surges from a faulty alternator or charging problem, ‘The electronic steering contol unit is capable of self-diagnosing faults by monitoring the system's inputs and outputs and the driving current of the electric motor In ease of « problem, the control unit tums off the entire system by actuating a failsafe relay in the power uni, the system reverts back to manual Steering and warning light to the dashboard alerts the driver, AAs electronic power steering has the following advantages over the hydraulic power steering, due to which itis being increasingly used in modem cars « 1. No problem of leakage of fluid. 2. Energy being consumed only while steering. 3, Steering assistance available even when the engine is not running, 4. While steering manually lesser force is required compared to a hydraulic system since there is no fluid to be forced through valves, 18. FOUR-WHEEL STEERING In the conventional two-wheel steering systems, the rear wheels are not steered and thus are not actively involved in the steering control. However, in four wheel Steering systems, the rear wheels can also turn and thus contribute to the smooth vehicle steering. To keep the driving controls simple, the rear wheels are steered by means of computer control. At slow speeds, say upto 35 kn/h, the rear wheels turn in a direction Opposite to that of tuming of the front wheels, reducing the tuming radius by upto twenty five percent, while at higher speeds, both front and the rear wheels turn in the same direction, which facilitate the vehicle in changing lane with less yaw, enhancing straight line stability. In between these two Opposite steering phases, there is also a neutral phase at some predetermined speed, say 35 kin/h, when the rear wheels are not steered, In case of any failure (mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or electronic) of the four-wheel steering the rear wheels automatically revert to the neutral ie., in the straight ahead position, essentially converting the system to simple two-wheel steering. A waming light also comes on to indicate the system failure. Examples of cars using four wheel steering are : General Motors — GMC Sierra (2002) Honda — Prelude (1988), Accord (1991) Mazda — 626 (1988) Mitsubishi — GTO, 3000 GT ‘ Nissan —240 SX, 300 ZX, Silvia, Skyline GE-R 4 ‘Toyota — Aristo (1997), Celica (1990-95)230 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING Advantages of four wheel steering are : __ 1. Superior comering stability. 2. Improved steering response and precision. : 3. High speed straight line stability, 4. Improved rapid lane-changing maneuvers. 5. Smaller turing radius; consequent improved maneuverability in small space at low vehicle speeds. 6. Reduction in driver fatigue over high speed and long range driving. However, inspite of the above advantages, four wheel steering has not been popular in cars, due to decrease in sensitivity caused by increased weight and complexity, For instance, GM offered four-wheel steering in Silverado/Sierra and Suburban/Yukon. However, according to one estimate, only 16,500 such vehicles were sold from 2002 to 2004. On the other hand, now Renault claims to have devised advanced four-wheel steering system, named as ‘Active Drive’. They are going to employ the same in the top-end version of ‘Laguna’ and the forthcoming Laguna coupe. Itis stated to reduce the turning circle of Laguna from 12.05 meters to 10.8 meters. There will be a separate ECU for the rear wheel steering which would be connected with the rest of the data-architecture of the car with a high speed CAN (Controller Area Network). Data would be taken from yaw and wheel speed sensors, alongwith car's ESP system, to operate an electric actuator to steer the rear wheels by upto 3.5 degrees. The reactions times would be as small as 10 millisecond, while weight addition would be only 19 kg. 19, STEERING ADJUSTMENT The two main adjustments ie, of steering geometry and of the steering gear will be discussed here. 19.1. Adjustment of Steering Geometry Following steps are involved in the adjustment of steering geometry : 1. Levelling springs 2. Measurement of camber angle 3. King pin inclination and the combined angle 4. Measurement and adjustment of caster angle 5. Adjustment of camber angle 6, Measurement and adjustment of toe-in. These will now be discussed in detail. 1. Levelling of springs One or both of the suspension springs, if sagging, would affect the steering geometry, and therefore the sagging springs have to be replaced. In case of torsion bars, there is a provision for adjustment. 2. Measurement of camber angle Measure the camber angle with the wheels in the straight ahead position. As any change in castor angle results in the corresponding change in camber, itis not adjusted at this stage even if found not according to the Pmanufectnes Specification. The adjustment of camber angle is performed only after the castor has been adjusted. 3. King pin inclination and the combined angle : dof cscmbet angle measured i found comect and thee is no definite directional tendency, there is no tied of checking either the king pin inclination or the combined angle. However, if such a tendency exists, . if any, is most commonly due to the bendi which has to be replaced. Further, iti i arp pe feo toe-out will exist. As the need to change the king pin ly, the specific adjustment for the same is not Provided.FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 21 4, Measurement and adjustment of castor angle « The castor angle may be measured indirectly, ie., by the change in the camber angle with turing the wheel through a specified angle, which is generally adopted as 40°. In rigid axle suspensions, the castor is adjusted by inserting suitable wedges between the springs and the spring pads. In case of the wishbor {ype independent suspension, the adjustment can be performed by providing eccentric bushes or pivot pin ‘The amount of eccentricity will determine the change of castor angle. 5. Adjustment of camber angle e After adjustment the castor angle, measure the camber angle and adjust the same if required. In igi axle suspension, this is adjusted by bending of the axle. However, in case of the wishbone type independent suspensions, the camber can be adjusted by providing eccentric pivot pins or bushes. 6. Measurement and adjustment of toe-in __ The toe-in is measured at the specified curb weight of thé vehicle. If found incorrect, the same may be adjusted by changing the lengths of the rods by means of the adjusting clamp provided. 192, Adjustment of Steering Gear a OM account of continuous use, various parts of the steering gear are worn out or become looses Adjustment is therefore required to restore the steering gear to proper working, Various adjustments a discussed below : a 1. Central or Mid-position To check whether the stcering wheel is aligned properly with the straight ahead position, drive il Vehicle in straight direction, While driving in this way, make alignment mark with a chalk on the steerin, wheel hub and the steering column jacket (Fig. e 8.67). Then to determine whether the steering gear ee ee is also in its midposition simultaneously, remove the drop arm, tum the steering wheel completely in one direction and then in the opposite direction. again to the extreme. Count the number of tums 2FE INS from lock to lock positions. Divide this number by JAckeT 2 and turn the steering wheel from the lock position through the resultant number. This locates the ‘mid-position of the steering gear. If in this position, alignment marks on the steering wheel hub and the steering column’ jacket coincide, it indicates that this adjustment is correct. However if the marks do not coincide, make the adjustment of the steering . linkage or the steering gear, whichever is provided 18: 8.67. Alignment mark for the straight ahead position. in the vehicle under consideration. The various methods of adjustment are : (H Adjustment of the link rod length. (i) Adjustment of the tie rod length—In case of two tie rods, the length of one tie rod is decreas while that of the other is increased. (iii) Adjustment of the drop arm position on the cross shaft ofthe steering gear. (i) Direct adjustment in the steering gear, by means of which the relative positioning of the worm a the cross shaft can be suitably changed. 2. Back Lash This is checked with the wheels touching the ground in straight ahead position. If excessive back lash is present, the same can be adjusted either by eccentric bush (worm and wheel type steering gear), or tapered teeth (recirculating ball type steering gear), or by means of shims. STEERING ‘WHEEL Hue ta] o eo oe eu ee e&» AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 3. End Play of the worm shaft With one finger over the gap between the steering wheel hub and the steering column jacket, try to move the steering wheel up and down the direction perpendicular to itself. The end play, if noticed, may be reduced or eliminated by suitable adjustment provided, which may be an adjusting screw (Fig. 8.68) ADuUSTER. 4. End play of the cross shaft SH ‘The end play of the cross shaft can be checked by $R088 holding the end of the drop arm fixed to the cross- ENO shaft and pulling and pushing the same alternately. ‘The end play can be eliminated by means of the adjusting screw, as shown in Fig. 8.68. The adjusting » ‘BUSH: SIDE COVER » . » Wy 222" tuned in the required rection til the entre Fig. 8.68, Adjusting screw method for the end e. eo eo eo END PLAY ADJUSTING SCREW end play is taken up. However, care should be taken to play of the cross sha. avoid excessive tightening which will result in binding. 5. Binding Steer ‘Tum the steering wheel in both the directions completely, when the wheels are jacked up. While doing so the steering should not experience any binding or sticking in any position-If it does, disconnect the link rod f. om the drop arm and check for binding again. Ifit disappears now, it means that the binding was due to some defect in the linkage which may be corrected for suitably, However, ifthe binding persists after the link rod has been disconnected, it indicates thatthe defect is somewhere in the steering gear. Make all the steering gear adjustments outlined above, afresh. Ifthe defect sill occurs there is no alternative, except, to overhaul the steering gear thoroughly. = 20. CHECKING OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT AND STEERING GEOMETRY Sophisticated equipment is available these days to check the wheel alignment (ie. toe-in or toe-out) W@ and various steering angles, viz., camber, castor and king pin inclination, However, before making any of the above checks, it is advisable to see that : 1. Front wheels are true running and wheel bearings are properly adjusted. 2. Tyres are inflated as specified. 3. Front suspension springs are properly seated and ball joints are not excessively loose. 4, The vehicle is in the laden or unladen condition as, recommended by the manufacturer, 5. As far as possible, the surface over which the vehicle is being checked, should be perfectly level. ‘The equipment manufactured by Dunlop Garage Equipment Limited will be described here mainly. 1. Wheel Alignment Gauge To check the wheel alignment with this gauge (Fig. 8.69), the vehicle is allowed to rest with the front wheels in the straight ahead position. Gauge members are fixed to the wheels as shown, so that member with mirror (1) is fixed on one side, whereas member with view box (2) etc. is fixed on the other side. The mechanic then sees through the periscope (3) and adjusts the pointer (4) so that a hair in the view-box ‘coincides with the apex of the triangle between the two vertical lines on the target plate (5) reflected in the mirror, The amount of toe-in or toe-out is then read off from the scale (6). After noting the reading the vehicle should be moved ahead so that wheels are exactly 180° ahead of the previous position and fresh wheel alignment determined. If the wheels are not true, the two readings jwill differ and in that case average of the two readings is taken as the correct reading. A simpler form of gauge for checking whee! alignment is the toe-in gauge, recommended by Maruti og (Pig, 8.70).ONT AXLE AND STEERING eee iS Fig. 8.69. Dunlop optical wheel alignment 1, Mirror, 2. View box, 3. Periscope, 4. Pointer, 5. Target plate, 6. Scale, (Courtesy—Maruti Udyog Lid.) Fig. 8,70. Toe-in gauge. Fig. 8.71. Dunlop camber guuge. 23a AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 2. Camber Gauge ‘The gauge shown in Fig. 8.71 serves to measure floor level as well as camber angle. A and B are dial ‘gauges reading in terms of degrees, while C and D are spirit levels, First the floor level is checked by placing the gauge in the horizontal position as shown in Fig, 8.71 and adjusting the dial gauge A so as to bring the bubble in the spirit level Cin the centre. In this position the reading on A gives the angle of floor level inclination. It should be kept in mind that itis the side-to-side floor level that has to be determined since it affects the camber angle measurement, Fig. 8.72. Dunlop camber gauge (1) and steering tum table (2) fitted on wheel, 3. Caster and KPI gauge, 4. Angle bracket, 5. Locking pin, After determining the floor level, the gauge is held against the tyre wall as shown in Fig. 8.72. Again, the dial gauge B is adjusted to bring the bubble in the spirit level in the centre. The camber angle is then read on the dial gauge B. 3. Castor and King Pin gauge ‘The vehicle is run on to tum tables as shown in Fig. 8.72 and is securely positioned. The Castor and King Pin gauge is then attached horizontally to the wheel stud by means on an angle bracket (8,72) or special clamp in case of centre lock wheels. The tum tables are then adjusted to read zero. One of the wheels is then tumed inwards through locking angle, say 20°, dials A and B (Fig, 8.73) are set to zero and screws E and F are tured si’as to centre the levels C and D. ‘Now the wheels are tumed outwards through the same angle 20°, ie., the locking angle in the opposite direction and screws E and F are again adjusted to centre the levels C and D. The castor angle and the king pin inclination is then given by the readings on the respective dial Fig, 873 Dunlop Castor and King Pin gangs. castor dial gauge, B—KPI dial gauge, gauges. C, D—Spirit levels, E, F—Knurled screws.@e FRONT AXLE AND STEERING 25 21. COMPUTERISED WHEEL ALIGNMENT EQUIPMENT e Lately, computerised wheel alignment equipme alignment. The use of such an equipment greatly en equipment is extremely simple and the time ‘mechanical or optical type of equipment. It is, however, very important that vehicle must be inspected as follows prior to the alignment. The inspection will detect many problems which have to be rectified before starting with the alignment work. In case of failure to do so, it would not be possible to get the vehicle pro- perly aligned since the measurement of steering geometry angles will not be accurate. Various steps for inspec- tion are : 1. The fuel tank should be full, otherwise the ride height of the vehicle will change. 2. Check the tyres. All tyres should be of the same make & size, in good condition and inflated to the specified pressure. Check the front wheel and tyre assemblies. There should not be excessive radial run out. 4. Check the steering linkage and ball joints. There should not be any excessive play, binding, wear or damage. Check all suspension faste- ners, which should not be loose. 6. Inspect all suspension com- ponent bushes. Replace any wor or damaged. 7. Check the ride height. If the same is not within specified value, look for excessive weight in the vehicle or some broken or weak suspension springs. After inspection, position the vehicle on the alignment rack and Fig. 8.74, CCD Infra-red wheel aligner. 4 install all the required alignment (Courtesy—Manatec Electronic, India) nt is being extensively used for 2-wheel or ‘hg hances the alignment accuracy. The operation of si taken for alignment job is greatly reduced comparéd-to ' »SUTFTSCTSCTCETC ETC T TTT TTT IIE * AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING equipment as per equipment Manufacturers instructions, Read the front and the rear alignment settings and eden the same with specified values. If camber and Castor are within the allowable limits, proceed to adjust toe, if required. If camber and/or castor ane Rot correct, you have to first readjust the same if it is Provided for in the vehicle, _ After the wheel alignment is complete, remove the ali alignment rack and take the vehicle for a test drive, One such wheel aligner is shown in Fig. 8.74. Its main features are: 1, Measurement of camber, toe, castor, set-back, runout and thrust angle, 2. On-line correction of camber, toe and castor, 3. Automatic ‘compensation of runoff, setback and thrust angle. 4, Automatic tracking of left and Tight turns in the monitor, 5. 5000 vehicle data memory, 22, STEERING TROUBLE SHOOTING ‘The common faults occurring in the steering systems are discussed below along with their remedies, 1. Excessive Backlash in Steering ‘The most probable cause Of this trouble is the slackness in the Steering linkage due to wear of ball joints and the steerin, ig box. Check these and Tectify as required. If the slackness is not Present, then the fault may be any of the following. (a) Steering gearbox be loose in chassis frame which ean be tightened. (») Steering drop arm may be lose on spines. The damaged part has tobe replaced, (©) The bearings at the front whee! stub axle may be lose or worn. They should be tightened or replaced as required. (@The adjustment ofthe steering gear or link 2 Wander When the vehicle is being driven sia the steering to bring it back to the straight ahead it tums slighly tothe other side Tho the ore on adjust steering constantly to keep the vekicle direction stra caused due to any one or more ofthe following : (@) Tyres may be badly worn, Install new tyres and check whee) ali resetting. : : (6) The bearing of steering knuckle may be tight which may be comected, (©) The front wheel bearings may be worn out. 0, the same ough tobe replaced, (@) The amount of castor on the wheels may be lest, which canbe increased by puting wedge underneath the suspensions springs. (e) Te veice maybe simpy oveloaded atthe rear (f) The toe-in may be incorect, which can be reset by adjusting tie- rod length (@) The ends ofc ro, the spring U-bols or the sering gear mountings may be lose, which may be tightened. ct / (h) Lack of lubrication in linkage and king pins. To remedy lubricate and fee up any components which are frozen and will not take lubrication. toca ie eis, constantly pulls towards oe side, Tis may be due to one mor of the following Fete pee ey ea if necessary, Steering pulls othe side having low ar pressure. 2 (b) The wor out tyres may also be source ofthis trouble which may be replaced. {¢) Some of the brakes may be dragging, which can be adjusted. ignment equipment, drive the vehicle off the age may not be proper, which may be done correctly. ignment which may requireFRONT AXLE AND STEERING 21 (d) The camber may have changed due to wearin : of bushes Vehicle pull othe side of axle having preaer camber, The daraged ee, SuPenson. The replaced and camber readjusted, +e Sangh pat in sch cae has be (0) Te cast onthe font wheels may be uneven or inconet. The sume maybe checked and aja (f) Alignment of front wheels may be incorrect, which should be adj I i ; adjusted correctly. (e) The front wheel bearings may be tight, which may be adjusted as required, (h) The suspension spring may be broken, which has to be replaced, (0 The sites nes of he font sping my ave Become uneven wih we, Th oly rene iso rep @ Spring tie bolts may have broken, Replacement isthe only solution, 4. Wheel Wobble (Low speed shimmy) : The oorllion of the front wheels at low speeds is called wheel wobble. This is generally due to lynamic unbalance of the wheel assembly, which may have developed du to following reasons : (a) Tyres may have worn unevenly, which should be replaced, (b) Incorrect balance weights fitted, which can be refitted correctly. But apart from these there are other reasons also : (a) The re pressure may be uneven. The same can be remedied by inflating the tyres to the specified (6) The ball joints may have wom out, which should be replaced. -(c) Steering gear or whee! bearings may be loose which can be adjusted or replaced as required. (Tre sis fe sigs mayb es suhag or replace them both with stiffer springs. (e) The camber may be incorrect or uneven, which may be suitably adjusted. (f) The castor may have become excessive due to wear of bushes or damage to front suspension. The damaged parts in such a case have to be replaced. 5, High Speed Shimmy ‘The oscillation ofthe front wheels at high speed is called high speed shimmy. Apart from the dynamic unbalance, the following factors may cause this trouble: _ (a) Wheel rim may be buckled, which can be straightened or replaced as required. (6) Front tyres may be having uneven pressure, which may be inflated correctly (o) The beatings of front wheels may have worn out or otherwise loose. I 0, the same have to be replaced. (@ Hyeraulic shock absorber maybe faulty. The only slation in such a casei the replacement (©) The toe-in of front wheels may not be corect, which can be reset. 6. Wheel Tramp” i ‘ i Sometimes the front wheels of vehicle at high speeds vibrate so violently that an almost uncontrollable motion of the front portion of the vehicle is caused. That is called wheel tramp and it may be due to any or more of the following reasons : (a) The tyre pressure in the wheels may be unequal, which may be checked and reset (b) The wheel assembly may not be balanced dynamically, which should be taken out and balanced. (c) The front shock absorber may be defective, which has to be replaced. (d) Incorrect castor, which may be checked and reset. 7. Excessive Tyre Wear The probable main reasons for excessive wear of the tyres are given below. For detailed discussion on this, refer Art 16, Chapter 9.AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING Toya, Supoas: oydoosa2L 7 HLL 1s 0e-9z 9-0 ol Det Oe~ el | um addi anu peg wpe ferems | “6, reg woneqnsspoy, 9eor st BS-S aN BE ot — | 20 21104 F WOM, 0c prepuns |“ : pas 2, +N 68 ROW Live sore-o 3 or or tea Sunensspoy 08se4/28pog | “1 Lites €-1 ME- 6 | WOE~ oD - oF ol Teg Supejnosoy | sopyan O1Z1 weL | “9 ae soiou| —22Suesseq sou105 4 Tew uN of ol on sqnog w% uD] —purey yousy | “5 fu a wu 1:02 vE-Z1 or of or PTO" 77 WOK, soups 19 door | -y wepeT £- 1 (oe - oD te vor open 6 ~ £ ol +O1~ 00 | acFloe-.) | Hoy wy wWOK oort wea} -€ (wD vor 8 Zeakz 1.09 28" TL 378 Jopssequiy Outen exor ev oF -91 Oty ob | or er or womnd 77 EY uesnputH | -Z 8 regu v-t Att SUE Atot vomld 7% eH |x (mans) anzew | “1 (san) (meus) wopmuyfouy “ON apap Fumuny | omy Suuang 201 ind Stay | 4010p 4oquiny Suuang fo adky ayou 221424, Ss SATIGOWOLAV NVIGNI AWOS 40 VLVG ONIMALLS SALLVAVAWOD ‘I'S ATAVL~ (a) Tyre pressure may not be correct, which may be checked and corrected if necessary, (0) Excessive tein or toe-ou, These may be checked and rest if necessary, o (c) Excessive camber, which may have developed due to wear of wheel bearings or some damage front suspension system, The damaged part should be replaced, ‘ow (@) The brakes may be dragging, which can be readjusted, 8, Hard Steering When the effort required for stering is more than the normal it may be due 1 any or more of following reasons : (a) Tyre pressure may be too low, which an be tested and corrected if necessary. (0) Excessive castor may be there, which should be adjusted properly, (c) There may be excessive friction in the steering gear box or linkage or ball joints, which should be lubricated to reduce the friction, (d) Steering gear adjusted too ti align steering column, FRONT AXLE AND STEERING ightly or binding condition in steering column, Adjust steering gear (€) Incorrect wheel alignment, which may be checked and corrected as required, « . Poor Returnability o Poor return of the Steering wheel to centre may be due to the following reasons : (a) Tyre pressure may not be correct, Inflate to the specified value, o (6) Steering gear to column misalignment, Align the steering column, (€) Tight or frozen steering shaft bearings which will have to be replaced, (e) Tight steering linkage, which canbe lubricated. If required, the defective pivots may be replaced (€) Steering gear may be adjusted toa tight, Adjust preload to specifications, ( Front whee! alignment may be incorrect, which can be checked and corrected as necessary, OM REFERENCES oa 1, “Tyre vehicle and steering interaction’, Dunlop India Ltd, 2. ‘HFB 70 Integral Power Steering Gear’, Engineering and Service Manual, Ross Gear Division, TRW, isn US.A. 3. ‘Saginaw Steering Gear Division’, General Motors Corporation, U.S.A. 4. ‘Steering Columns’, Service Information Manual 022, Saginaw Steering Gear Division, U.S.A. e& 5: ‘Integral Power Steering Gears for Passengers Cars and Light Trucks’ Service Information Manual 80 ‘Saginaw Steering Gear Division, U.S.A. . 6, ‘Semb-integral power sering system for medium and heavy duty trucks! Service Information Manual 803, Saginaw Steering Gear Division, US.A. 7. Manual stering gear for medium and heavy duty trucks Service Information Manual 702, Saginaw Sterng ‘Gear Division, U.S.A. 8. ‘Steering Linkage’, Service Information Manual 709, Saginaw Steering Gear Division, U.S.A, a THEORY QUESTIONS a 1. Sketch front axle of a car and show how it is connected with the stub axle, 2. Discuss various factors of wheel alignment. 3. Explain the terms : camber, castor, steering axis inclination and toe-in, What are the effects of each on the steering characteristics of a vehicle? 4. What is perfect steering? Derive expression for the basic condition for a perfect steering mechanism. x 5. Discuss in detail the Ackermann steering mechanism, 6 Define comering force. What isthe effect of slip angle, inflation pressure and tyre Joad on the comeing My force? What is self-righting torque? 7. What do you understand from the terms : oversteer, understeer, comering power and slip angle? xAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING : Rem Steering linkage for a vehicle with independent suspension. - What do you understand by backlash in steering gears? Skeich any one steecng gear and explain the Constructional features provided to adjust backlash, 7 {0- Sketch a recirculating ball type steering gear and explain its working 11. Describe in detail the rack and pinion type manual steting gear by means of a simple sketch and discuss its advantages, {2 Discuss various types of special steering columns for safety and ease of operation. 13, Ed the necessity of power stering in an automobile. Sketch any power stering system and explain its 14. Discuss in detail various adjustments inthe steering geometry andthe sleting gear. 15. Describe in detils the equipment to check wheel alignment and stering geometry. 16 Discuss any type of computerised wheel alignment equipment, describing various steps for inspection of vehicle before proceeding with wheel alignment. 17. Explain the probable causes of various steering troubles and suggest suitable remedies NUMERICAL PROBLEMS 1. Accar with a wheelbase 2.45 m has pivot centres 1.1 m. The tack distance between tyre centre lines is 1.2.m. Tf the angle of lock is 30° and tyre width 100 mm, determine the minimum radius of the outer turning circle (5:40 m) 2. A motor car has a wheel base of 2.743 m and pivot centres 1,065 m apart. The front and rear wheel track is 1.217 m. Calculate the correct angle of outside lock and turing circle radius of the outer front and inner rear wheels when the angle of inside lock is 40°, (AMLLE. (India), 1966 Summer] (324°, 5.2 m, 3.2m] 3. Acar using rack and pinion type steering gear has steering wheel of 300 mm diameter and pinion with 5 teeth ‘of 10 mm pitch. Determine the effort required by each hand at the steering wheel to overcome a load of 600 Nat the rack. [591] QUESTIONS FOR VIVA 1. State the requirements of a steering system. 2, What is the material used for front axle? How is it manufactured? 3, Why for a front axle do we have I-section in the middle and elliptical section at the end? 4, What is a stub axle? 5. What is the function of king pin? 6. What is steering axis? . 7. What do you understand from ‘wheel alignment’? 8. What is thrust angle? 9. What is ‘tracking’? 10. State factors of wheel alignment? 11. What happens to vehicle steering if the road wheels are not balanced? 12, Name important angles of steering geometry? 13. Define camber, SAT and castor. 14, What is ‘set-back’? 15, What is scrub radius? : ' steering geometry parameter to give road feel to the driver. ioe t at oul te the approximate amount of the following in a car: camber, kingpin inclination, included : and toe-in? i : 18. ra ‘ingpin and the wheel centre lines meet below the ground, will the wheels try to te-in? 19, What is centre point steering? 20. What is toe-change? When does it occur? 21. Define perfect steering? = 22. What is ‘lock’ position in steering?FRONT AXLE AND STEERING m1 25, Define ‘tuming circle’. State its approximate value for any (0) cat, (i) bus. 24, What is ‘toe-out on tums"? 25. Why is it easier to steer a vehicle in reverse than in forward? 3 26, What is slip angle? 27. Define comering force and comering power, 28. What is self-righting torque? A 28, What is () pneumatic trail, (i) castor trail? | 30. Define ‘understeer’ and ‘oversteer’, 31. What is the purpose of bal joins in the steering linkage? 32. What is the function of steering gears? 33, Name any three types of steering gears. 34. What isthe function of balls inthe recirculating ball type sterng gear? 35, Why are the teth on the nut in the recirculating ball ype sering gear made tapered? 36. Which is the most popular steering gear for cars? 37, State the advantages ofa rack and pinion type steering gear 38. Why isthe pinion usually placed tilted to rack inthe rack and pinion type steering Bear? 39. What purpose does a tilt wheel steering column serve? 40. What is the purpose of a telescopic steering column? 41, What is power steering? 42, Name two basic types of power steering. 43. What are the main components of integral power stering system? 44. What is the purpose served by a variable steering ratio steering gear? 45. Out of the camber and the castor, which :s measured frst and why? 46. Which angle out of the camber and the castor is adjusted first? Why? 47. Name the various gauges used for the checking of wheel alignment. 48. What do you mean by the terms ‘wander’ and ‘shimmy"in tering? How are they caused? 49. What does the term ‘dynamic balance’ mean? 50. What is ‘wheel tramp’ in case of steering? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Mark the correct answers : 1. The angle formed by the whee! withthe vertical when the top of the wheel slants outward is called (2) positive camber () negative camber (©) positive castor (@) negative castor 2. The angle formed by the line joining the stub axle-steeing arm ball joints with the vertical, when this line slants forward at the top is called (@) positive camber (®) negative camber (© positive castor (@) negative castor 3. The included angle is the sum of the (a) camber and castor (®) castor and SAL (©) camber and $.A.1. (@) camber and toe-in 4. The tuming circle for a car is approximately (@) 1 metre (6) 2 metres (©) 10 metres (@) 30 metres 5. Comering force divided by slip angle is called () sef-righting torque (6) comering power (©) pneumatic trail (d) castor tril 6. The side force sustained by the wheel during comering divided by the slip angle is called (a) comering force (b) camber force i (¢) comering power (d) none of these ‘ EEAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING ‘Another name for the steering link rod is. (a) track rod (0) tie rod (c) drag link @ pitman Most popular manual steering gear for cars today is (@) rack and pinion type (6) worm and wheel type (C) cam and roller type (d) worm and nut type ‘The steering ratio for manual steering of cars is approximately (@)5 (O)15 (50 (@ 100 One purpose of a recirculating ball type steering gear is to reduce the (a) operating friction (b) operating cost (©) toe-out during tums (@) number of parts |. In the recirculating ball type steering gear, the balls travel between the ball nut and the (@) gear rack (6) worm wheel (©) steering whee! shaft (@) worm shaft ‘The type of steering gear used in a Maruti 800 car is (@) rack and pinion (6) worm and roller (©) worm and wheel (@) none of these On cars having rack and pinion steering, the gear rack is attached to (@) relay rod (6) pitman axis (C) cross shaft (d) tie rod (Key. 1: (a), 2 (4), 3. (€), 4. (€), 5. (6) 6. (€), 7. (€).8. (a), 9. (6), 10. (a), 11. (d), 12. (@), 13. (@))