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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

Unit 154: Knowledge of light vehicle chassis units and

components
Handout 2: Construction and operation of steering systems

Purpose of the steering system

The steering system has two main purposes:
• to allow the direction of the vehicle to be changed
• to allow the force applied by the driver to be increased.

These functions are provided by the steering mechanism and this will include a gearing
system. This gearing can be by a:
• rack and pinion
• steering box
o recirculating ball
o worm and nut
o worm and peg
o worm and roller
o worm and sector
o worm and wheel.
Many earlier light vehicles were fitted with steering boxes but their use now is mainly
limited to heavy vehicles. Almost all modern light vehicles will be fitted with a rack and
pinion system.

The following terms are used in connection with steering systems:

• Steering lock
This is the smallest radius through which the vehicle can turn
• Reversible steering
If the steering can be operated by swivelling the road wheels, when it is raised from
the ground, the system is known as reversible.
• Irreversible steering
If it is not possible to turn the steering by swivelling the road wheels, then the system
is known as irreversible.
If a reversible system is used then shocks from the road are transmitted to the steering
and this can cause difficulty in controlling the vehicle. If an irreversible system is used
then very little ‘feel’ is transmitted to the driver. Most steering systems therefore use a
semi-reversible system, which allows some feel to the steering but does not transmit
heavy shock loads through the mechanism.

Rack and pinion

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

As the steering wheel is turned this causes the pinion, which is attached to the steering
column, to rotate. The teeth on the pinion mesh with the teeth on the rack; as the pinion
rotates it causes the rack to move, and this in turn causes the angle of the wheels to
change.

The diagram shows how the steering wheel allows

movement to be transferred to the steering linkage.

True rolling motion

To provide good control and produce the minimum tyre wear, the wheels need to rotate
with a true rolling motion; this means they must be free, or as free as possible, from any
tyre scrub.
When moving, the wheels need to remain parallel, but the steering geometry and
movement in the linkage can cause the direction of the wheel to change. It is therefore
necessary to ensure that the wheel alignment is correct when the vehicle is stationary,
so that they take up the correct position as the vehicle moves. This means that the
wheels may not be parallel when the vehicle is stationary, but may have to ‘toe-in’ or
‘toe-out’.

The diagram shows the wheels with ‘toe-in’.

Generally, with front wheel drive vehicles the
wheels will ‘toe-out’ when the vehicle is stationary,
and as the vehicle moves forward the wheels are
forced in, making them parallel. Rear wheel drive
vehicle are often set with ‘toe-in’ because the
wheel are forced outwards as the vehicle moves.
However, this does not apply in all cases and the
manufacturer’s data must be consulted before
checking the wheel alignment.

When the vehicle turns a corner, each of the steered wheels has to turn through a
different angle; this is known as ‘toe-out-on-turns’ and is achieved by the use of the
Ackerman system. This is shown in the diagram below.

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

When the front

wheels are in the
straight position,
lines taken through
the steering arms
will meet on a
point in the centre
of the rear axle, or
an imaginary point
in the same
position. As the
wheels are turned
this linkage causes
each wheel to turn
through a different
angle, therefore
they will not
remain parallel but
will toe-out.

Note that this is

the theory, but in
practise the lines
may not intersect
exactly as shown,
as the
manufacturer may
wish to change the
steering and
handling
characteristics.

Steering geometry
To ensure that the vehicle maintains true rolling motion, allow it to be steered with the
minimum effort and keep tyre wear to a minimum, components are designed with
various settings.

Camber angle
This is obtained by tilting the wheel at the top, so when viewed from the front it is not
vertical. Positive camber is where the wheel is angled out at the top, as shown in the
diagram below. In some cases negative camber is used and in this case the wheel is
angled out at the top.

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

The diagram shows a positive camber angle. Although this will

vary between vehicles it is approximately 2°.

This angle assists in producing lighter steering and provides

some compensation for road camber.

Castor angle
This is obtained by tilting the swivel axis backwards at the top, when viewed from the
side.

This allows the system to operate in a similar way to a castor, on

a trolley, and is used to provide a self-centering effect to the
steering.

This will vary with vehicle but is usually between 2° and 5°.

Swivel pin inclination (steering axis inclination)

This is obtained by inclining the swivel pin axis inwards at the top, when viewed from the
front of the vehicle. This is sometimes known as king pin inclination, a term used when
vehicles used single pin to provide the steering axis.

The swivel pin axis formed by tilting the swivel pin inwards
the top, as indicated by ‘B’ in the diagram. In theory the
camber angle and swivel pin inclination angles are formed
to meet at the road surface, and this would produce
‘centre point steering’. This would provide a very light
steering, although it would make turning very easy it
would also make the vehicle difficult to control at higher
speeds. Therefore the angle are formed to provide an
offset.

Offset
In the diagram above, if the camber angle and swivel axis lines were extended they
would meet below the road surface; this is known as positive steering offset.
The system can be designed to allow the two angles to meet above the surface of the
road, and this is known as negative steering offset. The latter is usually used because it
provides greater stability if a tyre deflates or if there is a failure with one circuit of a
diagonal braking system.

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

Oversteer and understeer

When being driven, the deflection of the tyres can have an effect on the steering and the
behaviour of the vehicle, especially when cornering.

The effect of this deflection causes a ‘slip angle’ –

this is the difference between the true path of the
tyre and the actual path. When designing the
suspension and steering, manufacturers take this
into account and will compensate for this. However,
if angles change, due to wear, damage, etc, then it
can affect the handing of the vehicle. One other
effect of the tyre is ‘self-aligning torque’; this
deflection is caused by the rotation of the tyre.

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

The two main types of handling characteristics are:

• Oversteer
This can occur when the slip angles of the rear tyres are greater than those of the
front tyres. When cornering this will cause the vehicle to take a sharper turn than
required.
• Understeer
This occurs when the slip angles of the front tyres are greater than the slip angles of
the rear tyres. When cornering this will cause the vehicle to take a less sharp turn
than required

In the diagram the green line indicates the true

path, or neutral steer path, the red line indicates
the path taken when understeeering.

Power assisted steering

To assist in making the system easier to operate power assisted systems are often
used. These can be:
• electrical
• hydraulic.
This can have a number of advantages:
• allows more freedom in suspension and vehicle design
• reduces driver effort
• reduces road shocks through the steering system
• reduces the number of turns of the steering wheel.

The basic construction and operation of these systems is given below.

The hydraulic type consists of:

• control valves
• fluid reservoir
• drive belts
• hydraulic cylinder
• pump.

The pump, usually engine driven, supplies fluid at pressure to a hydraulic cylinder. This
cylinder acts in some way on to the steering linkage, assisting the effort applied by the
driver. The control valves direct fluid to provide the assistance in the correct direction
and at the appropriate pressure.

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Level 2 Diploma in Light Vehicle Maintenance & Repair Principles (QCF) Unit 154 Handout 2

The electric type consists of:

• sensors
• electronic control unit
• electric motor
• actuating mechanism.

When the steering is operated the sensors send signals to the electronic control unit.
Based on the signals received, this then determines the direction and effort applied by
the motor to assist the drivers effort.

Hydraulic power assisted steering system

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