Short Notes Rotational Motion

1. TENSOR
A physical quantity which can neither be treated as scalar nor as vector is called a
tensor. Example: Moment of inertia. It has different values about different axes, but
never negative.
2. Angular displacement represents rotational effect, so, appears to be an axial vector.
Furthermore, as it obeys the law of parallelogram of addition so it may be a vector.
However, it has been found that large angular displacement does not obey the law of
commutation while infinitesimals do, i.e.,
⃗𝟏+ 𝜽
𝜽 ⃗𝟐≠ 𝜽
⃗ 𝟐+ 𝜽
⃗ 𝟏 but 𝒅𝜽
⃗ 𝟏 + 𝒅𝜽
⃗ 𝟐 = 𝒅𝜽
⃗ 𝟐 + 𝒅𝜽
⃗𝟏

So, angular displacement is a vector if small and not a vector if large.

3. When wheel in contact rotates:
Consider two wheels of radii r1 and r2 are rotating in
contact without slipping.
If 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the linear velocities of their points of
contact, then 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 (or) 𝜔1 𝑟1 = 𝜔2 𝑟2 .
If 𝑟1 = 𝑟 and 𝑟2 = 2𝑟, then 𝜔1 = 2𝜔 and 𝜔2 = 𝜔.
4. Torque:
Turning effect of force is described by a vector torque. Position vector from point O on
the axis of rotation to the point of application of force is called moment arm. The
moment of the force or torque about O is defined as the product of F and the moment
arm. 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟⊥ = 𝐹 (𝑟 sin 𝜃)
Alternatively resolve F into its components (𝐹∥ , parallel to r and 𝐹⊥ , perpendicular to r).
Since 𝐹∥ passes through O, its moment arm is zero, hence its torque is zero.
𝜏 = r𝐹⊥ = 𝑟 (𝐹 sin 𝜃), r(Fsinθ) is magnitude of torque.

Torque is a vector and expressed 𝝉 ⃗

⃗ ×𝑭
⃗ =𝒓
 To find the direction of the torque, curl the fingers of the

right hand from 𝑟 through the smallest angle to 𝐹 . The

upwardly extended thumb then points in the direction of

𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹.

5. The quantity 𝑟 × 𝐹 is torque of F about O. When we say torque about axis of rotation,

it means axial component of vector 𝑟 × 𝐹 along OA. Torque of a force about axis OA is
independent of the choice of origin O, but it must lie on the axis.

6. If force 𝐹 is parallel to axis of rotation, then 𝑟 × 𝐹 is perpendicular to axis. Component

𝑟 × 𝐹 along the axis is zero.

7. If line of action of 𝐹 intersects the axis, the point of intersection is our origin. Torque

about O is 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 0, therefore its component along the axis will be zero.

8. If force F is skew with the axis (line of action of 𝐹 is perpendicular but non-

intersecting with the axis), then torque of 𝐹 has magnitude |𝜏| = |𝐹 |(𝑟⊥ ) where 𝑟⊥ is

moment arm. Moment arm is the perpendicular distance from axis of rotation to the
line of action of the force.
9. Couple:
Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action are
different constitutes a couple. The moment of couple can
be found by taking moments of both the forces about any
axis perpendicular to plane of forces and adding them
algebraically.
Thus, moment of couple 𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐴𝑂 + 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐹 (𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵) = 𝐹𝑑
or τ = Force x perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces.
10. Instantaneous Axis of Rotation:
At any instant it is possible to locate a point in the plane which has zero velocity and
hence plane motion of other points may be looked as pure rotation about this axis.
Such point is called instantaneous centre and the axis passing through this point and
 right angles to the plane of motion is called instantaneous axis of rotation.
Motion of such an object may be looked as pure rotation about a point has zero
velocity to simplify the study. Such a point is called instantaneous centre and the
axis passing through this point and perpendicular to the plane of motion is called
Instantaneous Axis of Rotation (IAOR).
11. There are two methods of locating instantaneous centre.
Instantaneous centre can be located by any of the following two methods:
(i) If the angular velocity ω and linear velocity 𝑣𝐴 are known, instantaneous centre can
𝑣𝐴
be located at a distance along the perpendicular to the direction of 𝑣𝐴 at A.
𝜔

(ii) If the linear velocities of two points of rigid body are known, say 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 , drop
perpendiculars to them at A and B. The intersection point is the instantaneous centre
(see Fig).

12. Why do we use the concept of IAOR for bodies in combined rotation and translation?
Ans: When a body is under the combined influence of rotational and translational effect,
then there exists a point (on the body or off the body) which happens to have zero net
velocity, see diagram. This makes us think about a point called Instantaneous Centre
(IC) of zero velocity and the axis passing through IC, normal to plane of motion, is
called Instantaneous Axis of Rotation (IAOR). So, the combined effect of rotation and
translation is just equivalent to a single effect of rotation about IAOR (as if the body is
 pinned to IC and is just rotating about IC.
IC lies in the portion or IC lies towards the
portion that rotates opposite (i.e., has
tangential velocity opposite) to 𝑣𝑐𝑚 .

13**. Although the concept of IC is conveniently used to determine the velocity of any point
in a body, however generally, IC does not have zero acceleration and therefore, it
should not be used for finding the acceleration of any point in the body.
14**. When a body is subjected to general plane motion, the point determined as the
instantaneous centre of zero velocity for the body can only be used for an instant of
time. Since the body changes its position from one instant to the next, then for each
position of the body a unique instantaneous centre must be determined.
15. The locus of points which defines the ΙC during the body’s motion is called a centrode.
Thus, each point on the centrode acts as the ΙC for the body only for an instant of
time.
16. ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY (R.K.E.)

For a system rotating about a point, we must keep in mind that the translational
kinetic energy of a rigid body having mass M and centre of mass velocity 𝑣𝑐𝑚 is given
1
by 𝐾𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2
, and the rotational kinetic energy of the body about its centre of mass
1
is 𝐾𝑅 = 2 𝐼𝑐𝑚 𝜔2 . So, the total energy of a body in rotation about an axis can be written

as K = KR + KT.
17. If Wext is the work done by external forces, Wnc is the work done by non-conservative
forces, Wps is the work done by pseudo forces and Wint is the work done by internal
forces, then according to Modified Work Energy Theorem (MWET) studied earlier, we
have
However, in the absence of dissipative (non-conservative), external, pseudo forces,
 work done by them is zero and if work done by internal forces is zero, then the total
mechanical energy of a system is conserved, i.e.

18. TOTAL ENERGY OF A BODY IN PURE ROLLING:

Total K.E. = Rotational K.E. + Translational K.E.

If KR stands for rotational kinetic energy and KT for translational kinetic energy, then
we have

𝟏
19**. For a body in pure rolling motion, we have 𝑬 = 𝒎(𝒌𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 )𝝎𝟐
𝟐

Now 𝑚(𝑘 2 + 𝑅 2 )𝜔2 is actually moment of inertia of body (in combined effect of rotation
and translation) about axis that passes through the point of contact P, which happens
𝟏
to be at rest (in case of pure rolling), so 𝑬 = 𝑰 𝝎 𝟐
𝟐 𝒑

This axis passing through P is always normal to the plane used to represent motion
and the intersection of this axis with the plane is the location of instantaneous centre
of zero velocity (IC).
 The Instantaneous Axis of Rotation (IAOR) passes
through a point called the Instantaneous Centre of
Zero Velocity (IC).
So, from above we conclude that pure rolling is
equivalent to the case of pure rotation about a new
axis (called Instantaneous Axis of Rotation, IAOR)
that passes through the point of contact (because it
was the only point which is at rest in pure rolling).
20. Moment of inertia:
Moment of inertia of a body is a measure of its ability to resist change in state of
rotation. It plays the same role in rotational motion what inertia plays in translational
motion. Mathematically, moment of inertia of a particle of mass m about an axis is
defined as I = mr2 where r is the distance of particle from axis of rotation. Its SI unit
is kg-m2.
Moment of Inertia of System of Particles:

Moment of Inertia of a Rigid Body:

Limits of integration depends on the shape of the body:
The moment of inertia of a body depends on the following factors:
(i) Mass of the body.
(ii) Size and shape of the body.
(iii) Position and orientation of axis of rotation.
21. (a) Moment of inertia of a particle about an axis passing through the particle itself will
be zero.
(b) Any body can have infinite numbers of moment of inertia.
22. Radius of gyration:
Suppose the whole mass of the system M is concentrated at a point and placed at a
distance k from the axis, then the moment of inertia of the equivalent system can be

𝐼
defined as, I = MK2. then k is called radius of gyration and can be written as 𝑘 = √𝑀

23. Thus, radius of gyration of any system about its axis of rotation may be defined as the
distance from the axis of rotation, if square of it is multiplied by total mass of the
system it gives moment of inertia of the system about the axis.
24. Radius of gyration depends on position and direction of axis of rotation and
distribution of mass about axis of rotation.
25. Parallel axis theorem:
The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of
mass plus the product of the mass of the body and the square
of the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
𝑰𝑨 = 𝑰𝒄𝒏 + 𝒎𝒅𝟐 . **The parallel axis may lie inside or outside the body.
26. Perpendicular axis theorem:
The moment of inertia of a body lying in a plane
about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal
to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body
about any two mutually perpendicular axes in its
plane and intersecting each other at the point
where the perpendicular axis passes through the
body. 𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

** Intersection of axes need not be the centre of mass of the body. Perpendicular
axis theorem can be used for planar body but not for cone, etc.
27. Toppling:
For rotational equilibrium:
Torque due to F about COM is CW
Torque due to friction f about COM is CW
Torque due to mg about COM is zero.
**Normal force will shift towards right to
balance the CW torques.
(i) The normal force can shift to the right extreme edge of the block but not beyond
this.
(ii) Resultant of friction and normal force (contact force) must pass through the same
point where the line of action of applied force and weight meet.
(iii) For body to be in equilibrium, these three coplanar forces must pass through the
same point.
(iv) Always normal force shifts in the direction of applied force (F) such that net torque
about COM becomes zero and the block does not topple.
28. A uniform cylinder of height h and radius r is placed with its circular face on a rough
inclined plane and the inclination of the plane to the horizontal is gradually increased.
If μ is the coefficient of friction, then
𝟐𝒓
(a) the cylinder will slide before toppling if 𝝁 < 𝒉
𝟐𝒓
(b) the cylinder will topple before sliding if 𝝁 > 𝒉

29. A force F is applied at the top most point of a cylinder of

radius r and height h as shown in Figure.
(a) coefficient of friction required so that the cylinder
𝒓
topples before sliding is 𝝁 > 𝒉.

(b) coefficient of friction required so that the cylinder

𝒓
slide before toppling is 𝝁 < 𝒉.

28. Angular Momentum:

The angular momentum of a particle about an axis is defined as the moment of the
linear momentum of the particle about that axis. It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is kg-m2/s.
29. Angular momentum of a particle due to translational motion:
The magnitude of angular momentum is the evaluated by moment of linear
momentum. It is always evaluated with respect to a given point (or axis of rotation), so
its value can be evaluated by multiplying the linear momentum with the shortest
 distance of the point from the line of momentum.

30. Angular momentum due to rotation of the particle:

If a particle is revolving in a circular path, as shown in figure,
here the shortest distance of linear momentum from the centre
is its radius thus the angular momentum of particle about the
centre of circle is 𝑚𝑣𝑟. Here the direction of angular momentum
given by right hand thumb rule is in upward direction along the
axis of circular motion in figure.
31. Angular momentum of a rigid body due to rotation:
Angular momentum of the whole body 𝐿 = ∫(𝑑𝐼)𝜔
As ω is same for each element of the body, and ∫(𝑑𝐼) is the moment of inertia of the
whole body, say it is I, so L = I(ω)
32. ***Angular Momentum of System in Combined Rotation and Translation:
If a body is in combined rotation and translation like rolling and we are asked to find
the angular momentum of the body about any fixed point or a reference point, then
⃗𝑳𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = ⃗𝑳𝑪𝑴 + 𝑴(𝒓 ⃗ 𝑪𝑴 )
⃗ 𝑪𝑴 × 𝒗
i.e., total angular momentum of
system/body is equal to the sum
of the angular momentum of the
CM about that point and the angular
momentum of the system about the CM.
So, for a rigid body undergoing linear
and rotational motion, the total angular
⃗ 𝑂 and
momentum may be split into two parts (a) the orbital angular momentum, 𝐿
⃗ 𝑆.
(b) the spin angular momentum 𝐿
33. The orbital angular momentum is the angular momentum of the centre of mass
motion about an origin O in an inertial frame.
34. The spin angular momentum is the angular momentum relative to the centre of
mass.
35. The orbital term treats the system as a point particle at the centre of mass, whereas
the spin term is the sum of the angular momenta of the particles relative to the centre
of mass. The total angular momentum relative to the origin O in an inertial frame is

the sum of both the angular momenta i.e., ⃗𝑳 = ⃗𝑳𝑶 + ⃗𝑳𝑺

⃗
𝒅𝑳
36. ⃗ and ⃗𝑳:
Relation between 𝝉 ⃗ =
𝝉 𝒅𝒕

37. ANGULAR IMPULSE:

⃗ = ∫ 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝐿
ANGULAR IMPULSE = (LINEAR IMPULSE) (𝒓⊥ )
38. The net angular impulse acting on a rigid body is equal to the change in angular
momentum of the body.
Angular Impulse angular impulse = τ (Δt) = ∆L

Now, following three cases can be considered.

(a) If torque is constant, then angular impulse (AI) is obtained by directly multiplying
this constant torque with the given time interval.
(b) If torque is a function of time, then angular impulse (AI) is given by Angular
𝑡
Impulse (AI) = ∫𝑡 2 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
1

(c) If torque versus time graph is given, then angular impulse (AI) can be obtained by
the area under that graph.
In all three cases, angular impulse is equal to the change in angular momentum.
39. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM:
⃗ = constant (both in magnitude and
For no external torque acting on system, 𝐿
direction)
40. WORK DONE BY A TORQUE:

If a constant torque τ acts on the body, then W = τ ∆θ

41. Power Delivered by a Torque:
Power = Torque x Angular velocity

42***. If we consider only rigid objects (where the relative distances among the particles are
fixed) that undergo pure rotation around a given point, then L = Iω, which gives dL/dt
= I (dω/dt) ≡ I . ⇒ 𝝉𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑰𝜶
Invariably, we will calculate angular momentum and torque around either the
CM or a fixed point (or a point that moves with constant velocity, but this doesn’t
Come up often).
43. Collison between two objects:
In an isolated system, such as a collision between two objects, there are no external
⃗ are conserved. Additionally,
forces, and hence no external torques. So, both 𝑝 and 𝐿
the energy E is conserved if the collision is elastic.
44. When the collision is elastic and there are no external forces, we’ll need to apply
conservation of all three of p, E, and L.
Case I: Conservation of L, around a fixed dot on the table coinciding with the initial
center of the stick, (remembering that the stick’s angular momentum comes from a
combination of the CM motion and the rotational motion around the CM)
Case II: In applying conservation of L, any other fixed point will work too.
For example, we can pick a fixed dot on the table that coincides with the point of
collision.
45. Stick and pivot:
Example: A ball also with mass m is placed on the table a distance d from the pivot,
and the stick collides elastically with it, as shown in Fig
 Hint: Conservation of E and conservation of L (around the
pivot). Energy is conserved because the collision is elastic.
Linear momentum is not conserved, because there is an
external force at the pivot. Angular momentum relative to
the pivot is conserved because the external force at the pivot
produces no torque around it.
46. Sticking to a stick:
Example: A uniform stick with mass m and length ℓ lies at
rest on a frictionless table. A ball with the same mass m moves
with speed 𝑣0 perpendicular to the stick. It collides completely
inelastically with the stick and sticks to it, at a distance x from
the center, as shown in Fig.
Hint: Energy isn’t conserved, because the collision is inelastic. And linear momentum
won’t be relevant in finding the angular velocity ω (at least for our choice of origin). So
we need only consider angular momentum. We’ll apply conservation of L around a dot
painted on the table at the location of the CM of the entire system, at the moment
when the ball hits the stick.
47***. Center of percussion:
You loosely hold one end of a uniform stick of length ℓ, which is then struck with a
hammer. The point where this strike occur so that the end you are holding doesn’t
move (immediately after the strike)? In other words, the point where should the strike
occur so that you don’t feel a “sting” in your hand is called the center of percussion.
Example: Let us consider a bat which is stationary. The bat is struck by an impulse
J at a distance y from the centre of mass.
Any point on the bat has two velocities, the centre of mass velocity VCM and the
tangential velocity Vt caused due to rotation about the centre of mass. As shown in
Fig, these two velocities are in opposite directions. If they are of equal magnitude, the
point x acquires no net velocity due to impulse.
 The point whose position is given by y is called the centre of percussion.
48. Rolling Motion:
In pure rolling, the velocity of the point of contact is zero and the velocity of centre of
mass is 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝜔.
49. Velocity of a Point on the Rolling Body:
On a rolling body, the velocity of point P is the vector
sum of velocity due to translation and due to rotation.

50. If the point of contact of the surface is moving

with velocity u with respect to the ground, then

For accelerated surface

51.
52.

53.
54.

55. Role of Friction in Rolling:

Case 1: Take a wheel of radius R, and give it translational
velocity 𝑣𝑐𝑚 and angular velocity w, so that 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝜔 and
place the wheel on a rough horizontal surface. As 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝜔,
so there is no relative motion between points of contact of
the wheel and the surface. The wheel will continue its motion
with constant velocity.
Case 2: Consider a wheel acted upon by a force F at its centre chang ing the velocity
of the centre of the wheel or the angular speed about the centre, then there is a
tendency for the wheel to slide at P, and a static frictional force acts on the wheel, at
the point of contact to oppose this tendency. At subsequent motion the linear speed
decreases due to force f and angular speed increases due to its torque (f R).
The minimum value of coefficient of friction required for rolling of a body on horizontal
surface for given value of F, the coefficient of friction (static)
 **Case 3: Let a wheel is thrown on a rough surface with initial velocity 𝑣0 . The
tendency of point of contact P is to slide forward, so frictional force acts in backward
direction of motion of wheel. Due to the frictional force, the linear speed of centre of
wheel decreases and angular speed increases due to the torque exerted by frictional
force. A condition is reached when 𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔, and then the wheel will start in pure
rolling motion. Thereafter friction stops acting.

Case 4: Let a rotating wheel, 𝜔 = 𝜔0 is placed on a rough surface. The tendency of the
point of contact P is to slide backward, so the frictional force will act in forward
direction. Because of this frictional force, the centre of wheel starts accelerating, while
torque of frictional force decreases the angular speed. After some time, the wheel
starts rolling. Thereafter, friction stops acting.

56. Accelerated Pure rolling:

1. Rolling motion of spool and wheel:
Case I: In this case sliding tendency of point of contact P
is backward

Case II: In this case sliding tendency of point of contact P

is forward
 2. Let a wheel 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝜔 land on a smooth inclined
plane. The centre of the wheel will accelerate due to
a force mg sinθ, but the angular speed of wheel will
remain constant as no torque is acting on the wheel
about the axis of rotation. So, the motion of wheel
will no remain pure rolling. Thus, the body can have
pure rolling only on rough inclined surface.
3. Let a wheel be placed on a rough inclined plane. The tendency of contact point P is
to slide down the inclined due to a net force down the plane. The friction will act up
the plane at the point of contact of the wheel. This frictional force constitutes a torque
(f R). Due to which the wheel starts rotating in addition to translation. Here role of
friction is to transfer some part of translational KE into rotational KE. The mechanical
energy of pure rolling wheel remains constant.
57. Direction of Friction in case of Translational and Rotation combined:
Example: A rolling object of mass M and radius R is
placed on a rough horizontal surface. A force F is
applied as shown in the figure.

(a) If K2 > Rx: friction will act in backward direction.

(b) If K2 = Rx: no friction will act.
(c) If K2 < Rx: friction will act in forward direction.
If force acts in lower diametric plane, friction will act in backward direction only.
58. Two identical cones of radius R and half angle θ are in pure rolling as shown in figure.
In both the cases the centre of the base of the cone is having a constant speed of
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = v.
The angular velocity of the cones:
𝑉
case 1: 𝜔
⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜔1 cos 𝜃 (−𝑟̂ ) = (− 𝑟̂ ),
𝑅

𝑉 2
𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = −𝜔1 𝜔2 cos 𝜃 (𝜃̂) = − (𝑅) tan 𝜃 (𝜃̂),
𝑉 𝑉
⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜔1 (−𝑟̂ ) + 𝜔2 𝑘̂ =
case 2: 𝜔 (− 𝑟̂ ) + (𝑘̂),
𝑅 𝑅 cot 𝜃

𝑉 2
𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = −𝜔1 𝜔2 (𝜃̂) = − (𝑅) tan 𝜃 (𝜃̂),