Evolution of Digital Systems or History of Computers

Generations of Computers

A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with

time. There are five generations of computers which are described below.

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape
and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;
Ex: ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and computer)

Second Generation Computers

The second generation(1959-1965)was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
use transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first generation computers. In this generation, magnetic cores were
used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage.
Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL FORTRAN and Batch
processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.
Ex: IBM 1620

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single
IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These
generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating
system. Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
Ex: IBM-360 series

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation(1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits;
a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C,C++,DBASE were also used in this generation.

Ex :DEC 10

Fifth Generation

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with
ten million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificia lIntelligence) software.The programming languages used in this
generation were C,C++, Java, .Net, etc.

Ex:Desktop

Computer Systems and its working Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional computer
system. The components that make up a computer are called computer components. The
processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every computer's three main building
blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for numerical computations because any
information can be numerically encoded. The ability of computers to interpret information for
several purposes was quickly recognized There 5 main computer components are:

oOutput Devices
oCPU
oOutput Devices
oPrimary Memory
oSecondary Memory

Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter commands
and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous examples of input
devices.

oThe is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting textand queries
intoer system.
oMice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer screen.
oScanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into acomputer system.
oMicrophones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They can be
used for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts, participating in video
 conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the
calculations and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The CPU
comprises some components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.

oThe CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and decoding
instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and executes these
instructions from the control unit.
oThe ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part. The
ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other logical and
mathematical processes. These operations are carried out using binary logic, which
limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
oRegisters are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the CPU.
They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU momentarily.
Registers are used to accelerate data processing because they are much faster than
other forms of memory, such as RAM.
oThe CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall performance.
The clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands
the integral processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization capability, and a couple
of cores in addition to the above mentioned components. A small, quick memory called a cache is
used to store data and instructions that are utilized frequently. A single CPU may run numerous
operating systems thanks to virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous tasks
simultaneously thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its performance and multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to sometimes referred to as random access memory (RAM). The
data and are currently being processed are kept in primary memory. The data and instructions
are accessed by the CPU from primary memory when a computer programme is running. The
information is removed from primary memory once the programme is completed.
Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and read- only
memory (ROM).

oRAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data and
instructions that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile, which means
that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But RAM can be effortlessly
and quickly written to and read from, making it areally perfect storage medium for
temporary data and instructions.
oROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't change.
ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while the computer is
turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's basic input/Output
machine(BIOS),that are required for the computer to boot up and function well.
Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in computer
systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and instructions, which might be
utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be received from RAM or
secondary storage devices, it is used to speed up the processing of records.

Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that is used to
store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In contrast to primary
memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its contents are not lost when
the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives(HDD), solid-
state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These
devices have varying storage capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities that
make them appropriate for different types of applications.
 oHard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing devices and
laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and keep data on magnetic
discs. However, solid-state drives employ flashmemory to store data and are typically
quicker and more reliable despite being extra high-priced than HDDs.
oOptical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discussing lasers. They are
frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and other digital information. Small,
portable storage devices known as USB flash drives are connected to a computer's USB
connection. Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is
useful since it makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect
crucial data from loss due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary memory
devices as backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to show or send
data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable customers to view and engage
with the information and applications the computer is processing. Speakers, projectors,
printers, and monitors are a few examples of output devices.

oMonitors are the most frequently used output devices used to showdata on a computer
machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different forms of data and
exist in various sizes and resolutions.
oPrinters are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of papers and
other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are available in various
sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make speedy, high-volume prints,
inkjet printers employ liquid ink to produce high- quality prints.
oSpeakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be connected
externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable users to interact
with other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and listen to
music.Projectorsareoutputdevicethatdisplayshugeimagesandvideosonascreen or wall.
They are frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that call for a sizable
display.

Operations of Computer Components

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a computer
system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried out by computer
components:

1.Inputting:It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into
thecomputer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used asinputdevicesto help with the
process. These tools are used to enter information and instructions into a computer
system. Data is transferred to the CPU for processing after inputting by an input
device.
2.Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This
process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage,
processes it and then sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU performs
arithmetic computations, logical operations, and data transport processes.
3.Storing:The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores
the processed data before displaying it as output. The primary memory, sometimes
called RAM, is where the CPU processes the data and instructions. Hard disc drives
and solid-state drives, which serve as secondary
termstoragefordataandprogrammesthatare not currently used. memory,off
4.Outputting:It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices
like monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce the results of the
processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an output device for display
or printing after the CPU has finished processing the data and instructions.
5.Controlling:This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The
control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and
sequence. The main circuit board connects all the parts of the computer. It also regulates
the data flow between them, ensuring they function properly and connecting them all.

Software and its Types

Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the hardware
to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software. The software
can be of three types: system software, application software, and programming software.

1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the
computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The
application programs are also controlled by system software. An operating system is an
example of system software.

i) Operating System:
An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user to
communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of hardware and
re of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows, and Apple
Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

 oBIOS:It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is
stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in
advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the first software
that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It loads the drivers of the
hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating system to load itself into the
memory.
oAn assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer
instructions and converts them in to a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to
perform basic operations.
oA device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a
computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an appropriate
interface. The CPU communicates with different hardware through this software.
Operating systems generally come with most of the device drivers.

2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not
control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without
application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It
can be a single program or a collection of small programs.
oWord Processing Software:This software allows users to create, edit, format, and
manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating
images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
oSpreadsheet Software:It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create
charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an
intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
oMultimedia Software:These software are developed to perform editing of video,
audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you
can improve a text document by adding photos,animations, graphics, and charts
through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
oEnterprise Software:These software are developed for business operational
functions. It is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too large.
It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing and more.
Ex:CRM (Customer Relationship ERP
Management),BI (Business Intelligence),
(Enterprise Resource Planning)
3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It
assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We
are facilitator software that helps translate programming language such asetc., into machine
language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For e linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text
editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software development tool.

Ex: Eclipse, notepad

Algorithm
Writing a logical step-by-step method to solve the problem is called the algorithm. In other words, an
algorithm is a procedure for solving problems. In order to solve a mathematical or computer problem,
this is the first step in the process. An algorithm includes calculations, reasoning, and data processing.
Algorithms can be presented by natural languages, pseudocode, and flowcharts, etc.

Flowchart
A flowchart is the graphical or pictorial representation of an algorithm with the help of
differentsymbols, shapes, and arrows to demonstrate a process or a program. With algorithms, we can
easily understand a program. The main purpose of using a flowchart is to analyze different methods.
Several standard symbols are applied in a flowchart:

Terminal Box - Start / End

Input / Output

Process / Instruction

Decision

Connector / Arrow
The symbols above represent different parts of a flowchart. The process in a flowchart can be
expressed through boxes and arrows with different sizes and colors. In a flowchart, we can easily
highlight certain elements and the relationships between each part.

Example