INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME

ROLL NUMBER

SESSION APR 2025

PROGRAM BACHELOR OF COMPUTER

APPLICATION (BCA)

SEMESTER IV

COURSE NAME COMPUTER NETWORKING

COURSE CODE DCA2201

SET - I

1
Q1. Why is layered model used for computer networks? Explain OSI referenced model.

ANS :- ➤ Why Layered Model is Used for Computer Networks

I). Divides Complex Communication into Manageable Parts

• The layered model separates networking functions into clearly defined layers.
• Each layer performs a specific role, which makes the network design, development, and
troubleshooting more efficient.

II). Encourages Compatibility Among Different Systems

• Each layer follows standard protocols, allowing devices from different vendors to
communicate effectively.
• It enables smooth data exchange between systems with different hardware and software
configurations.

III). Supports Flexibility and Easy Upgrades

• Changes made in one layer do not affect the functioning of other layers.
• This flexibility allows improvements or updates to individual layers without redesigning
the entire system.

IV). Helps in Teaching and Learning

• The model provides a clear understanding of how data travels across a network.
• It is widely used as a reference tool in academic and technical environments to explain
networking concepts.

➤ Explanation of OSI Reference Model

I). Introduction to OSI Model

• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was developed by ISO as a framework for
designing and understanding computer networks.
• It consists of seven layers, each responsible for specific networking functions that enable
communication between devices on a network.

II). Seven Layers of the OSI Model

I. Physical Layer
• Deals with the physical connection between devices.
• It defines hardware components, transmission media, and electrical signals used to transmit
binary data.

II. Data Link Layer

• Responsible for error detection and correction during data transmission between two
directly connected nodes.
• It breaks data into frames and controls access to the physical medium.

III. Network Layer

• Handles the routing of data from the source to the destination across multiple networks.
• It assigns IP addresses and ensures correct packet delivery.

2
IV. Transport Layer
• Ensures reliable communication between devices.
• It manages error recovery, flow control, and data sequencing using protocols like TCP and
UDP.

V. Session Layer
• Manages sessions or connections between applications.
• It handles starting, maintaining, and closing communication sessions.

VI. Presentation Layer

• Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for the application layer.
• It ensures that data sent from one system can be properly interpreted by another.

VII. Application Layer

• Provides services and interfaces directly to end users and applications.
• Protocols such as HTTP, FTP, and SMTP work at this layer for web browsing, file
transfers, and email.

Conclusion
The layered model makes it easier to build, understand, and manage networks. The OSI
reference model organizes communication into seven well-defined layers, helping developers
and engineers design systems that work across a wide range of technologies and platforms.

Q2 – Discuss the working of Stop and Wait protocol in a noisy channel with the help of
an example.

ANS :- ➤ Working of Stop and Wait Protocol in a Noisy Channel

I). Introduction to Stop and Wait Protocol

• The Stop and Wait protocol is a fundamental flow control and error control mechanism
used at the Data Link Layer.
• It allows for reliable transmission of data over unreliable or noisy communication channels.
• In this protocol, the sender transmits one frame at a time and then waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame.
• It is simple in design and ensures that each frame is properly received before proceeding.

II). Role of a Noisy Channel

• A noisy channel is a transmission medium where data frames or acknowledgments can be
corrupted, lost, or delayed due to interference, signal distortion, or other physical issues.
• These errors can affect both directions of communication — the sender may not receive an
ACK, or the receiver may receive a damaged frame.
• The Stop and Wait protocol handles this by introducing timeouts, retransmissions, and
sequence numbers to guarantee reliability.

III). Components and Working Mechanism

1. Frame Transmission and Acknowledgment

• The sender sends a data frame and starts a timer.
• The receiver, upon receiving the frame correctly, sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to
the sender.
• If the sender receives the ACK within the timeout period, it sends the next frame.

3
2. Timeout and Retransmission
• If the sender does not receive an ACK before the timer expires, it assumes the frame or the
ACK was lost or corrupted.
• The sender then retransmits the same frame.

3. Use of Sequence Numbers

• The protocol uses sequence numbers, usually 0 and 1 alternately, to identify frames.
• If a frame is received more than once (due to retransmission), the receiver checks the
sequence number and discards duplicates, but still sends an acknowledgment.

➤ Example of Stop and Wait in a Noisy Channel

• Consider a sender that needs to send two frames to a receiver: Frame 0 and Frame 1.

• Step 1: The sender transmits Frame 0 and starts the timer.

• Step 2: The receiver receives Frame 0 correctly and sends ACK 0.
• Step 3: Due to channel noise, ACK 0 is lost and never reaches the sender.
• Step 4: The sender's timer expires, and it resends Frame 0.
• Step 5: The receiver detects that it already received Frame 0 (based on the sequence
number), discards the duplicate, but sends ACK 0 again.
• Step 6: The sender receives ACK 0 and proceeds to transmit Frame 1.

• This cycle repeats for every frame, ensuring data integrity and reliability even in noisy
environments.

➤ Advantages of Stop and Wait Protocol

• Ensures reliable delivery of each frame, even when transmission errors occur.
• Simple and easy to implement, making it suitable for basic communication systems.
• Prevents data overload at the receiver, as only one frame is in transit at any time.

➤ Limitations of Stop and Wait Protocol

• Low Efficiency:
– Only one frame is sent at a time, which causes poor utilization of bandwidth, especially
in high-speed networks or networks with long propagation delays.

• Idle Time:
– The sender remains idle while waiting for an acknowledgment, leading to
underutilization of resources.

• Not Suitable for Large Data Transfers:

– Due to its slow nature, it is inefficient for modern systems that require high-speed, large-
volume data communication.

Conclusion
The Stop and Wait protocol is a simple yet powerful method for ensuring reliable
communication over a noisy channel. Through the use of acknowledgments, timeouts, and
sequence numbers, it can handle data loss, duplication, and corruption. Although it has
significant limitations in terms of efficiency and speed, it lays the foundation for more
advanced error control protocols and remains essential in understanding basic data link layer
operations.

4
Q3. Give a contrast between unicast, multicast and broadcast. Also explain the way they
implemented.

ANS :- ➤ Contrast Between Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast

I). Unicast

• Definition
Unicast refers to a one-to-one communication method in which data is sent from a single
sender to a single specific receiver across the network.

• Characteristics
– It is the most commonly used form of data transmission, especially in client-server models.
– Each unicast communication session involves a unique connection between sender and
receiver.
– Data is delivered only to the intended destination, ensuring privacy and controlled usage of
network resources.

• Example
Accessing a website from a personal computer or downloading a file from a server.

II). Multicast

• Definition
Multicast is a one-to-many communication method in which data is sent from one sender to a
group of selected recipients who are interested in receiving the data.

• Characteristics
– The sender transmits data only once, and the network ensures delivery to multiple
subscribed receivers.
– Only the devices that have expressed interest in the multicast group receive the data.
– It is bandwidth-efficient for group communication like video conferencing or live
streaming.

• Example
A teacher broadcasting an online lecture to selected students connected in a virtual
classroom.

III). Broadcast

• Definition
Broadcast refers to a one-to-all communication method where data is sent from one sender to
all devices within a local network segment.

• Characteristics
– Every device on the local network receives the broadcast data regardless of whether it is
interested in it.
– Broadcast is limited to the broadcast domain (usually the local network or subnet).
– It is useful for network discovery protocols and address resolution tasks.

• Example
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) messages sent to all devices on a local LAN.

5
➤ Implementation of Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast

I). Unicast Implementation

• IP Addressing:
Unicast communication uses a unique IP address assigned to the destination device.
For example, when a browser sends a request to a web server, the request is sent to that
server’s IP address directly.

• MAC Addressing:
In Ethernet networks, the unicast frame contains the MAC address of the destination device.
Switches read the MAC address and deliver the frame to the correct port.

• Routing:
Routers forward unicast packets based on the destination IP address using routing tables.

II). Multicast Implementation

• IP Addressing:
Multicast communication uses reserved IP address ranges (e.g., 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255 in IPv4) to represent multicast groups.

• Group Membership:
Devices join multicast groups using IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
Routers and switches maintain multicast group information to ensure data is only delivered
to subscribed devices.

• Efficient Transmission:
The sender sends a single copy of data, and routers replicate and deliver it only to relevant
recipients, saving bandwidth.

III). Broadcast Implementation

• Broadcast Addressing:
Broadcasts use a special IP address such as 255.255.255.255 (limited broadcast) or the
network-specific broadcast address (e.g., 192.168.1.255 for 192.168.1.0/24).

• MAC Addressing:
Ethernet frames are sent to the broadcast MAC address FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF so that all
devices on the LAN receive the frame.

• Network Scope:
Broadcast traffic does not cross routers. Routers drop broadcast packets to prevent flooding
beyond the local network.

Conclusion
Unicast, multicast, and broadcast represent three different ways of sending data across a
network. Unicast delivers data to one specific device, multicast delivers it to a selected group
of interested receivers, and broadcast sends it to all devices in the local network. Each
method has its own use case and is implemented using specific IP address types, transmission
protocols, and hardware-level addressing schemes to suit various network communication
needs.

6
 SET - II

Q4. Explain various routing methods follow in network layer. Discuss their purpose in
different environments.

ANS :- ➤ Various Routing Methods Followed in the Network Layer

Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network. The network layer is
responsible for determining the best route for data packets from the source to the destination
across multiple networks. Various routing methods are used depending on the size,
complexity, and requirements of the network environment.

I). Static Routing

• Definition
Static routing is a method where routes are manually configured and entered into the routing
table by a network administrator.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Suitable for small networks with minimal changes in topology.
– Provides high security and control, as routes do not change unless modified manually.
– Commonly used in home networks or small office environments.

• Advantages
– Simple to implement and understand.
– No routing overhead or bandwidth consumption by routing protocols.

• Limitations
– Not scalable for large or dynamic networks.
– Requires manual updates for any changes in network structure.

II). Dynamic Routing

7
• Definition
Dynamic routing uses routing protocols that automatically adjust routes based on the current
network status and topology.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Ideal for large, complex, or frequently changing networks such as enterprise networks and
service providers.
– Adapts to link failures and congestion by recalculating routes.

• Examples of Protocols
– RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
– OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
– EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

• Advantages
– Automatic updates reduce administrative burden.
– Efficient and adaptive to network changes.

• Limitations
– Consumes more bandwidth and CPU resources.
– Slightly more complex to configure and troubleshoot.

III). Default Routing

• Definition
Default routing is used when a router is configured to send all packets destined for unknown
networks to a single default route or gateway.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Useful in small or stub networks that connect to only one external network.
– Common in edge routers or end devices connected to the internet via an ISP.

• Advantages
– Simple and efficient configuration for limited traffic paths.
– Saves routing table space and reduces complexity.

• Limitations
– Not ideal for networks that require multiple path options or granular control.
– May result in suboptimal routing decisions in complex networks.

IV). Source Routing

• Definition
In source routing, the sender specifies the complete route that a packet should follow through
the network.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Primarily used in testing and experimental environments where precise control of routing
is needed.
– Can be used to bypass faulty routers or links.

8
• Advantages
– Provides full control over the packet's path.
– Useful for diagnostics and troubleshooting.

• Limitations
– Not scalable or secure for large networks.
– Adds overhead due to additional routing information in each packet.

V). Hierarchical Routing

• Definition
Hierarchical routing divides the network into different levels or regions, with routers
assigned specific roles in each level.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Designed for large-scale networks like ISP backbones or enterprise WANs.
– Improves scalability and simplifies management by grouping routers.

• Advantages
– Reduces routing table size through route summarization.
– Enhances efficiency and performance in large environments.

• Limitations
– Requires careful design and planning.
– Can become complex as hierarchy levels increase.

VI). Adaptive Routing

• Definition
Adaptive routing dynamically changes the routing paths based on current network conditions
such as traffic load, link failure, or delay.

• Purpose and Use Case

– Suitable for mission-critical and high-performance networks like cloud data centers and
telecommunication cores.
– Responds in real time to maintain optimal data flow.

• Advantages
– Ensures optimal route selection based on real-time conditions.
– Enhances fault tolerance and network performance.

• Limitations
– Higher complexity and resource consumption.
– May cause routing instability if not properly configured.

Conclusion
Different routing methods serve specific purposes based on the structure and needs of a
network. Static and default routing are simple and best suited for small or stable
environments, while dynamic, adaptive, and hierarchical routing support larger and more
complex networks. Source routing provides special control in testing scenarios. Selecting the
appropriate routing method is essential for ensuring network efficiency, reliability, and
scalability.

9
Q5. Explain the process of controlling congestion in the transport layer in detail with
the help of examples.

ANS :- ➤ Process of Controlling Congestion in the Transport Layer

I. Introduction to Congestion Control

• Congestion control is a core function of the transport layer that ensures smooth and
efficient data transmission by preventing the overloading of network resources.
• It manages the rate of data sent into the network to avoid packet drops, delays, or degraded
performance.
• The most widely used protocol that implements congestion control is TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol), which dynamically adjusts transmission based on current network
conditions.

II. Congestion Control Mechanisms

1. Slow Start
• This is the initial phase of TCP congestion control where data is sent cautiously to probe
the network capacity.
• TCP begins with a small congestion window (cwnd), usually one segment.
• For each acknowledgment received, the congestion window doubles, allowing the sender to
increase its rate exponentially.
• This continues until a threshold (ssthresh) is reached or a packet loss occurs.
• Example: If the initial cwnd is 1, the next values will be 2, 4, 8, 16, and so on.

2. Congestion Avoidance
• Once the cwnd reaches the slow start threshold (ssthresh), TCP switches to congestion
avoidance mode.
• In this phase, cwnd increases linearly instead of exponentially.
• This controlled growth helps to avoid congestion while maintaining good throughput.

3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery

• When three duplicate acknowledgments (ACKs) are received, it indicates that a packet was
likely lost.
• The sender immediately retransmits the missing packet (fast retransmit) without waiting for
a timeout.
• TCP then reduces the congestion window and enters fast recovery mode.
• In fast recovery, cwnd is reduced to half, and TCP continues sending data with a slower
increase to avoid further congestion.

4. Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)

• ECN is a modern mechanism where routers mark packets instead of dropping them when
congestion is detected.
• The receiver sees the mark and notifies the sender, which then reduces its sending rate.
• This technique allows early congestion control without waiting for packet loss to occur.

III. Example of Congestion Control in Action

• A sender initiates a TCP connection with a receiver.
• It starts in slow start mode with a cwnd of 1 and rapidly increases the data rate after each
ACK.
• As the network becomes busy, cwnd hits the threshold and TCP switches to congestion

10
avoidance to grow more slowly.
• Suddenly, a segment is lost, and the sender receives three duplicate ACKs.
• TCP performs a fast retransmit and reduces cwnd before gradually recovering.
• If ECN is enabled, routers may inform the sender about upcoming congestion before actual
packet loss, helping it adjust transmission rate proactively.

IV. Importance and Benefits

• Helps maintain reliable and efficient network communication.
• Reduces chances of network collapse due to overloading.
• Ensures fair usage of network resources among multiple users.
• Enhances the overall performance and stability of the internet and large-scale networks.

Conclusion:
Congestion control is essential for managing traffic in modern networks. The transport layer,
mainly through TCP, uses techniques like slow start, congestion avoidance, fast retransmit,
fast recovery, and ECN to detect and control congestion effectively. These methods allow
TCP to adapt to varying network conditions, prevent overload, and ensure consistent and fair
data transmission across the network.

Q6. Compare between the lossy and lossless compression. Discuss the tradeoff between
these.

ANS :- ➤ Comparison Between Lossy and Lossless Compression

I. Lossless Compression

• Definition
Lossless compression is a technique that reduces file size without losing any data. After
decompression, the original file is restored exactly to its original state.

• Working
This method eliminates redundancy and repeated patterns in data using algorithms like
Huffman Coding, LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch), or Run-Length Encoding.

• Common Use Cases

– Text files
– Executable programs
– Databases
– PNG or ZIP files

• Advantages
– Perfect data reconstruction
– Ideal for critical or sensitive data
– Ensures accuracy and integrity

• Limitations
– Typically lower compression ratio compared to lossy
– Larger file sizes than lossy compression

II. Lossy Compression

11
• Definition
Lossy compression reduces file size by permanently removing some data that is considered
less important or less noticeable to human perception.

• Working
It discards certain information during compression to achieve higher size reduction.
Algorithms include JPEG (for images), MP3 (for audio), and MPEG (for video).

• Common Use Cases

– Images
– Audio
– Video
– Streaming services

• Advantages
– High compression ratio
– Significantly smaller file sizes
– Faster transmission and loading

• Limitations
– Cannot recover original data after compression
– Quality degrades, especially after multiple compressions
– Not suitable for sensitive or precise data

➤ Tradeoff Between Lossy and Lossless Compression

• 1. Quality vs. Size

Lossy compression achieves greater size reduction but at the cost of quality. Lossless
maintains perfect quality but results in larger file sizes.

• 2. Application Suitability
Lossy is suitable for multimedia where minor data loss is acceptable. Lossless is preferred
for documents, codes, and data files where accuracy is essential.

• 3. Storage and Bandwidth Efficiency

Lossy formats are better when storage space or bandwidth is limited. Lossless formats are
better when precision is more important than size.

• 4. Processing Time and Complexity

Lossy compression typically involves more complex algorithms, but results in faster transfer.
Lossless compression may require more storage but is safer for editing and archiving.

Conclusion:
Lossy and lossless compression each serve different purposes based on the need for file
accuracy or space savings. Lossy compression prioritizes smaller size and faster delivery,
making it ideal for multimedia, while lossless compression guarantees data integrity, making
it best suited for text, software, or archival use. The choice between the two depends on the
required balance between quality and efficiency.

12