Block 1 Solutions/Answers

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES

As in the previous block, the few examples and exercises given below cover
the concepts and processes you have studied in this block. Studying the
examples, and solving the exercises, will give you a better understanding of
the concepts concerned. This will also give you more practice in solving such
problems.

Example 1: Find the largest possible order an element of S 7 can have.

Solution: Every non-identity element of S 7 is a product of disjoint cycles,

each cycle being of length 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7.
Also, if σ1 , σ 2 , σ3 , K , σ n are disjoint cycles of lengths l 1 , l 2 , K , l n ,
respectively, then o(σ1σ 2 K σn ) is the l.c.m of l 1 , l 2 , K , l n .
Further, since there are only 7 symbols, the sum of the lengths of disjoint
cycles is at most 7.
You should look at all possible such products. You will find that the maximum
order possible is that of σ1σ 2 , where l 1 = 4, l 2 = 3, i.e., o(σ1σ 2 ) = 4 × 3 = 12.
***

Example 2: Show that every element of Q Z is of finite order.

p
Solution: Any element of Q Z is of the form
q + Z, where (p, q ) = 1.
⎛p ⎞
Now, q ⎜⎜ + Z ⎟⎟ = p + Z = Z, since p ∈ Z.
q
⎝ ⎠
⎛p ⎞
∴ o ⎜⎜ q + Z ⎟⎟ ≤ q.
⎝ ⎠
p
∴ q + Z is of finite order.

***

Example 3: Let U(n ) denote the set of elements in Z n that have an inverse
w.r.t. multiplication. (In Unit 10 you will study more about such sets.) Show that
( U(n ), ⋅) is a group.
Further, show that if (m, n ) = 1, then U(mn ) ~ − U(m) × U(n ).

Solution: Firstly, since 1 ∈ U(n ), U(n ) ≠ «.

Note that x ∈ U(n ) iff ( x , n ) = 1. (Why?)
Now, show that multiplication is a well-defined binary operation on U(n ).
Next, since multiplication is associative in Z n , it is so in U(n ).
Fourthly, show that 1 is the multiplicative identity of U(n ).
Finally, the way U (n ) is defined, each element has an inverse.
Hence, ( U(n ), ⋅) is a group.

Next, define
φ : U(mn ) → U(m) × U(n ) : φ( x (mod mn )) = ( x (mod m), x (mod n )).
Now, x ∈ U(mn )
⇒ (mn, x ) = 1
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⇒ (m, x ) = 1 and (n, x ) = 1, as (a , b) = 1 iff ar + bs = 1 for some r, s ∈ Z.
⇒ x (mod m) ∈ U(m) and x (mod n ) ∈ U(n ).
Also, if x = y in U(mn ), then mn ( x − y). So m ( x − y) and n ( x − y).
∴ x = y in U(m) and x = y in U(n ).
Thus, φ is a well-defined function.

Next, you should show that φ is a group homomorphism.

Now, to see why φ is a monomorphism, let x , y ∈ Z s.t.

φ( x (mod mn)) = φ( y(mod mn ))
⇒ x (mod m) = y(mod m) and x (mod n ) = y(mod n ).
⇒ m ( x − y) and n ( x − y).
⇒ mn ( x − y), as (m, n ) = 1.
∴ x (mod mn ) = y(mod mn ).
Thus, φ is 1 - 1.

Finally, to see why φ is surjective let ( x (mod m), y(mod n )) ∈ U(m) × U(n ).
Then (m, x ) = 1 and (n , y) = 1.
Since (m, n ) = 1, ∃ r, s ∈ Z s.t. mr + ns = 1. …(1)
Now φ(nsx + mry) = (nsx (mod m), mry(mod n )).
Also, by (1), x = mrx + nsx ≡ nsx (mod m), and y = mry + nsy ≡ mry(mod n ).
∴ ( x (mod m), y(mod n )) = (nsx (mod m), mry(mod n )) = φ(nsx + mry).
Thus, φ is onto.

− U(m) × U(n ).
Hence, U(mn ) ~
***

Example 4: Find the order of the quotient group (Z10× U(10) < ( 2, 9 ) > .

Solution: If o( 2, 9 ) = m, then
m m−1
(2m, 9 ) = ( 0, 1 ) and (2(m − 1), 9 ) ≠ ( 0, 1 ).
Now 2m = 0 ⇒ m = 5, 10, 15, K
9 m = 1 ⇒ m = 2, 4, 6, 8,K
So the least m s.t. 2m = 0 and 9 m = 1 is m = 10.
∴ o( 2, 9 ) = 10, and hence, o(< ( 2, 9 ) >) = 10.
Also, the order of Z 10 × U(10) = 10 × 4 = 40, since o( U (10)) = 4.

∴ the order of the given quotient group is 40 = 4.

10
***

Example 5: Check whether or not there is a non-trivial group homomorphism

from Z p to Z q , where q > p, p, q are primes.

Solution: Suppose f : Z p → Z q is a non-trivial homomorphism.

Let a denote a (mod p) for a ∈ Z.
Now, f ( 0 ) = 0(mod q ), as f is a homomorphism.
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Block 1 Solutions/Answers
Note that f is determined by f ( 1 ), since Z p = < 1 > .
Let f ( 1 ) = m(mod q ) ≠ 0(mod q ), since f ≠ 0.
Then f ( p ) = f ( 0 ) = 0(mod q )
⇒ pf ( 1 ) = 0(mod q)
⇒ pm(mod q ) = 0(mod q)
⇒ q pm
⇒ q m, as (p, q ) = 1.
⇒ m(mod q ) = 0(mod q)
v
⇒ f (1) = 0(mod q), a contradiction.
∴ No such f exists.
***

Example 6: Find all the possible group homomorphisms from Z 20 to Z 30 .

Solution: Let g : Z 20 → Z 30 be a group homomorphism.

Since Z 20 = < 1 >, g is determined by g ( 1 ).
Now o( 1 ) = 20. So o(g ( 1 )) 20.

Also, as g ( 1 ) ∈ Z 30 , o(g ( 1 )) 30.

∴ g( 1 ) is an element of Z 30 whose order is a common divisor of 20 and 30,
i.e., 1, 2, 5 or 10.
Accordingly, we have the following 4 cases:

i) o(g( 1 )) = 1 : Here g( 1 ) = 0, i.e., g = 0, the trivial homomorphism.

ii) o(g( 1 )) = 2 : Here g( 1 ) generates a subgroup of Z 30 of order 2. So

Im g = {0, 15} in Z 30 .
Now, 15 is the only generator of < 15 >, and g ( 1 ) = x , where x is a
generator of < 15 > .
∴ g : Z 20 → Z 30 : g ( 1 ) = 15 is the only homomorphism in this case.

iii) o(g( 1 )) = 5 : Here g( 1 ) generates a subgroup of Z 30 of order 5. So

Im g = {0, 6, 12, 18, 24}.
Now g ( 1 ) generates < 6 > .
So g ( 1 ) = x , where x is a generator of < 6 > .
You also know that o( 6 ) = 5. So < 6 > has φ(5) = 4 generators, where
φ is the Euler phi-function (see Unit 4).
These generators are 6, 12, 18 and 24.
Thus, in this case g can be one of four homomorphisms:
g1 : Z 20 → Z 30 : g1 ( 1 ) = 6 , or
g 2 : Z 20 → Z 30 : g 2 ( 1 ) = 12, or
g 3 : Z 20 → Z 30 : g 3 ( 1 ) = 18, or
g 4 : Z 20 → Z 30 : g 4 ( 1 ) = 24.
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Block 1 Essential Preliminary Concepts
iv) o(g( 1 )) = 10 : Here g( 1 ) generates a group of order 10.
So Im g = {0, 3, 6, 9 , 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27}.
So g ( 1 ) has φ(10) = 4 possibilities, namely, 3, 9 , 21, 27.
Accordingly, g can be one of 4 homomorphisms, g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 , given
by g1 ( 1 ) = 3, g 2 ( 1 ) = 9 , g 3 ( 1 ) = 21, g 4 ( 1 ) = 27.

Thus, there can be a total of 1 + 1 + 4 + 4 = 10 homomorphisms from Z 20 to

Z 30 .

Example 7: Give an example, with justification, of an infinite abelian group

which cannot be written as a direct product of two proper subgroups.

Solution: For example, take Q. Suppose, if possible, Q can be written as

H × K, where H and K are proper subgroups of Q. Then, neither H nor K
can be trivial. Also, by definition, H ∩ K = {0}.
Now, let x ∈ H, y ∈ K s.t. x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0.
p
Then x = q , y = s for p, q, s, t ∈ Z.
t
Then qsx = ps = pty.
Also qsx ∈ H and qsx = pty ∈ K. So qsx ∈ H ∩ K.
Since qsx ≠ 0, H ∩ K ≠ {0}.
This is a contradiction.
Hence, our assumption is wrong, and hence, Q ≠ H × K.
***

Example 8: Show that if G is a group s.t. Z(G ) = {e}, then Aut G has a
trivial centre.

Solution: Since Z(G ) = {e}, G ~

− Inn G ≤ Aut G.
Let φ ∈ Z(Aut G ).
Now, let a ∈ G. Then the inner automorphism f a ∈ Aut G.
So φf a = f a φ.
⇒ φ(axa−1 ) = aφ( x )a−1 ∀ x ∈ G
⇒ φ(a )φ( x )[φ(a )]−1 = aφ( x )a−1 ∀ x ∈ G
⇒ a−1φ(a )φ( x ) = φ( x )a−1φ(a ) ∀ x ∈ G.
Since φ ∈ Aut G, φ(G ) = G. So, we find that a−1φ(a ) commutes with every
element of G, i.e., a−1φ(a ) ∈ Z(G ) = {e}, i.e., φ(a ) = a. This is true for each
a ∈ G.
Hence, φ = I, the identity map, i.e., Z(Aut G ) = {I}, the trivial group.
***

Miscellaneous Exercises
E1) Give two distinct non-trivial elements of the group C[ x ] < x ( x 2 + i) > .

E2) If G is a group and H G, must every element of G H have finite

288 order? Why?
Block 1 Solutions/Answers
E3) Check whether or not there is a non-trivial group homomorphism from
Z p to S4 , where p is a prime.

E4) Give an example, with justification, of two distinct cosets of the subgroup
< (1 3) > in S5 .

E5) Show that G = {1 , 5, 7 , 11} is a group w.r.t. multiplication modulo 12.

Apply Cayley’s theorem to find a permutation group isomorphic to G.

E6) Show that R∗ ~

− R+ × {1, − 1}, where R+ = {r ∈ R r > 0}.

E7) Let G be a non-abelian group. Can Aut G be cyclic? Why?

E8) Check whether or not the greatest integer function,

f : R → R : f ( x ) = [ x ], is a homomorphism.

E9) Check whether or not f : Z 5 → Z10 : f ( x ) = 2 x (mod10) is a

monomorphism.

E10) i) Prove that ∑ φ(d) = φ(m), where m ∈ N

dm
and φ is the Euler-phi

function.
ii) Using (i), prove that the number of group homomorphisms from
Z m into Z n is the g.c.d of m and n , where m, n ∈ N.
[Hint: See Example 6.]
iii) Show that the number of group homomorphisms from Z m into Z n
is the same as the number of homomorphisms from Z n into Z m ,
where m, n ∈ Z.

E11) Prove that σ 2 is an even permutation for every σ ∈ Sn , n ∈ N.

E12) Let G be a group and H G s.t. G : H = p, a prime. For any subgroup

K of G, show that either K ≤ H or G = HK. In the second case, also
show that K : H ∩ K = p.

E13) Among the following groups, find those pairs that are isomorphic. Justify
your answers.
i) (Z4 , +), ii) (S2 , o), iii) (Q8 , ⋅), iv) (Z∗5 , ⋅), v) Aut Z 6 ,

vi) Inn S3 , vii) (R+ , ⋅), viii) (S3 , o), ix) (R, +), x) (D8 , o).

E14) How many epimorphisms are there from Z11 to Z8 ? Why?

E15) Show that D8 cannot be expressed as a direct product of two proper

subgroups.

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SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS
E1) As you know, there are infinitely many such elements. For instance, two
of them are 2+ < x 3 + ix > and x + < x 3 + ix > .
Since neither 2 nor x are in < x 3 + ix >, both the cosets are non-trivial.
Further, since deg ( x − 2) = 1 and deg ( x 3 + ix ) = 3, x − 2 ∉ < x 3 + ix > .
Hence, these cosets are distinct.

E2) No. For instance, from Unit 7 you know that R Z is a counter-example.

E3) Suppose f : Z p → S4 is a group homomorphism s.t. f ≠ 0.

Then Ker f is a proper normal subgroup of Z p .
Since Z p is simple, Ker f = {0}, i.e., f is 1 - 1.
So f (Z p ) ≤ S4 which satisfies all the properties that Z p satisfies.
In particular, let f ( 1 ) = σ ∈ S4 .
Then p ⋅ f ( 1 ) = f ( p ) = f ( 0 ) = I, as f is a homomorphism.
Thus, σ p = I. So o(σ) = p, as p is a prime.
∴ σ is a p -cycle or a disjoint product of p -cycles.
If p = 2 or 3, f : Z 2 → S4 and g : Z 3 → S4 , defined by f ( 1 ) = (1 2) and
g( 1 ) = (1 2 3), are homomorphisms from Z p to S4 .
However, for any prime p > 3, there is no non-trivial homomorphism
from Z p to S4 , since S4 has no p -cycles.

E4) For instance, (1 2 3) o < (1 3) > and (1 4) o < (1 3) > .

Show why they are distinct.

E5) The Cayley table for (G, ⋅) is

• 1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1

Using the table, you should prove that G satisfies all the axioms for
being a group.
Let φ : G → SG : φ( x ) = φ x , where φ x ( y) = xy ∀ y ∈ G.
Then φ( 1 ) = I (from the first row of the table above),
⎛1 5 7 11⎞
φ( 5 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟ (you can see this from Row 2 of the table),
⎝5 1 11 7 ⎟⎠
⎛1 5 7 11⎞
φ( 7 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 7 11 1 5 ⎟⎠
⎛1 5 7 11⎞
φ(11) = ⎜⎜ ⎟.
⎝11 7 5 1 ⎟⎠
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So φ( 1 ) = I, φ( 5 ) = ( 1 5 )( 7 11), φ( 7 ) = ( 1 7 )( 5 11), φ(11) = ( 1 11)( 5 7 ).

Thus, if we change the symbols in SG from 1 , 5, 7, 11 to 1, 2, 3, 4, we find
− {I, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}
G~
= V4 .

E6) First, for r ∈ R+ , r −1 ∈ R+. Also, r, s ∈ R+ ⇒ rs−1 ∈ R+.

So, R+ ≤ R∗.
Similarly, check that {1, − 1} ≤ R∗.
Since R∗ is abelian, both these subgroups are normal in R∗.
Also, R+ ∩ {1, − 1} = {1}.
∴ R+ × {1, − 1} is a well-defined internal direct product of R∗.

⎧(r, 1), if r > 0,

Next, define φ : R∗ → R+ × {1, − 1} : φ(r ) = ⎨
⎩(−r, − 1), if r < 0.
Check that φ is well-defined.
Now, for r, s ∈ R∗, four cases arise:
i) r > 0, s > 0 : φ(rs) = (rs, 1) = (r, 1)(s, 1) = φ(r )φ(s).
ii) r < 0, s < 0 : φ(rs) = (rs, 1) = (−r, − 1)(−s, − 1) = φ(r )φ(s).
iii) r < 0, s > 0 : φ(rs) = (−rs, − 1) = (−r, − 1)(s, 1) = φ(r )φ(s).
iv) r > 0, s < 0 : Do it as in (iii) above.
Thus, φ is a group homomorphism.

Also, for any (r, 1) ∈ R+ × {1, − 1}, (r, 1) = φ(r ).

Similarly, (r, − 1) = φ(−r ).
∴ φ is surjective.

Finally, Ker φ = { r ∈ R∗ φ(r ) = (1, 1)}

= { r ∈ R+ (r, 1) = (1, 1)}
= {1}.
∴ φ is 1 - 1, and hence an isomorphism.

E7) Suppose Aut G is cyclic. Then Inn G will be cyclic. So G Z(G ) will be
cyclic. This contradicts Theorem 5 of Unit 7. ∴ Aut G is not cyclic.

E8) First check that f is well-defined.

Next, f ( 1 ) = 0 and f (1) = 1.
2
⎛ ⎞
So f ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟ = 1 ≠ f ( 1 ) + f ( 1 ).
⎝2 2⎠ 2 2
Hence, f is not a homomorphism.

E9) Check that f is well-defined.

Next, f ( x + y) = f ( x + y) = 2 x (mod 10) + 2 y(mod 10)
= f ( x ) + f ( y).
Thus, f is a homomorphism.
Now, Ker f = {x ∈ Z5 10 divides 2 x in Z}
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Block 1 Essential Preliminary Concepts
= {x ∈ Z5 5 divides x in Z}
= {0}.
∴ f is 1 - 1.

E10) i) Let G be a cyclic group of order m. For each d m, G has a

unique subgroup of order d. Further, any such subgroup has φ(d )
distinct generators. Counting all these elements covers all the
elements of G, since each element of G generates some
subgroup of G.
Hence, ∑
φ(d ) = m.
dm

ii) As in Example 6, if f : Z m → Z n is a group homomorphism, then

o(f ( 1 )) must be a common divisor of m and n , and hence, must
divide (m, n ).
Now, if c is a common divisor of m and n , then c divides (m, n ).
Also, then Z n has a unique subgroup of order c, since Z n is
cyclic. This subgroup will have φ(c) distinct generators, where φ
is the Euler-phi function.
So, as in Example 6, there will be φ(c) distinct homomorphisms
from Z m into Z n , for each c (m, n ).

So, the total number of group homomorphisms from Z m into Z n is

∑ φ(c) = (m, n ).
c ( m, n )

iii) This follows immediately from (ii).

E11) For any σ ∈ Sn , σ ∈ Sn A n , and o(Sn A n ) = 2, since Sn : A n = 2.

∴ σ 2 = Id in Sn A n , i.e., σ 2 ∈ A n .

E12) Suppose K </ H. Then HK ≠ H.

Also HK ≤ G s.t. H ≤ HK ≤ G.
∴ G : H = G : HK HK : H .
Since G : H is a prime, either G : HK = 1 and HK : H = p, or
G : HK = p and HK : H = 1.
Since HK ≠ H, the second case is not possible.
Hence, G : HK = 1, i.e., G = HK.

Further, if G = HK, then HK ( H

)~− (K H ∩ K ), by the 2nd isomorphism
theorem.
Hence, K : H ∩ K = HK : H = p.

E13) (i) and (iv) are isomorphic, both being cyclic of order 4.
(ii) and (v) are isomorphic, since Aut Z 6 = {I, φ}, where
φ : Z 6 → Z 6 : φ( 1 ) = 5 .

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Block 1 Solutions/Answers
S3
(vi) and (viii) are isomorphic, since − Inn S3 and Z(S3 ) = {I}.
~
Z(S3 )
−/ D8 , as every non-trrivial element of Q8 is of order 2, but D8 has
Q8 ~
elements of order 4 also.

E14) Let φ be an epimorphism from Z11 to Z 8 .

Z11
Then − Z8 .
~
Ker φ
Since Z11 is simple, Ker φ = {0} or Ker φ = Z11.
Z
Accordingly, o⎛⎜ 11 ⎞ is 11 or 1.
⎝ Ker φ ⎟⎠
∴ o(Z8 ) is 11 or 1, which is a contradiction.
∴ There is no epimorphism from Z11 to Z8 .

E15) Suppose D8 = H × K , H D8 , K D8 , H ∩ K = {e}.

Since o(H) 8, o(H) = 2 or 4. And then, o(K ) = 4 or 2.
Take the first case, viz., o(H) = 2, o(K ) = 4.
If D8 = <{ x , y x4 = e, y2 = e, yx = x−1y} >, then K = < x > .
Since o(H) = 2, H is abelian.
Also, in a direct product of H and K , elements of H and K commute.
So D8 is abelian, a contradiction.
Similarly, if we take the case o(H) = 4, o(K ) = 2, we reach a
contradiction.
∴ D8 ≠ H × K.

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