I

Dang Van Hung,

M.A. 2013
 COURSE OUTLINE

Course Name: Research Methods

No. of Credits: 2
Course Length: 30 periods/ 15 classes/ 15 weeks
Course Prerequisites: None
Course Objectives:
This introductory course is designed to provide first-year undergraduate
students of the English Language Program with basic research concepts
and research processes through the lecturer’s presentations. The course
also introduces students to key steps in choosing a research topic and
developing a research proposal. Students will develop skills for critical
reading of research literature and become competent in planning,
conducting, evaluating and presenting a research project.
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completing this course, learners will be able
- IDENTIFY basic research concepts and research processes;
- DEMONSTRATE appropriate use of in-text citations and
references;
- DEFEND key elements of a research proposal;
- COMPOSE a research proposal on a research topic of interest.
Teaching and Learning modes
Teacher delivers lectures and facilitates learner group discussion.
Learners are to participate in group discussion, complete given
assignments, develop a research topic of their own interest and write a
research proposal.
Course Assessment
 On-going Assessment 50%
o Attendance and In-class participation 20%
o Research proposal 30%
o End-of-term Assessment (Final Written Test) 50%
 INTRODUCTION
What is research?
The term research has been used in so many contexts and with such a variety of meanings that
it is difficult for the student to sort it all out. Much of what we have been taught about
research is based on misconceptions. Teachers give students an assignment called a "research
paper" which mainly consists of gathering information from books and encyclopedias and
reorganizing it and regurgitating it on a student -authored paper. This and other activities have
been mislabeled research. They are more correctly, information gathering, note taking, or
library skills.
According Webster, to research is to search or investigate exhaustively (Webster, 1985). It is
a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws.
True research is a quest driven by a specific question that needs an answer. Paul Leedy, in his
book "Practical Research: Planning and Design" (Leedy, 1993) lists eight characteristics of
research which serve well in defining research. Here are those eight characteristics.
 Research originates with a question or a problem.
 Research requires a clear articulation of a goal.
 Research follows a specific plan of procedure.
 Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.
 Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.
 Research accepts certain critical assumptions. These assumptions are underlying
theories or ideas about how the world works.
 Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the
problem that initiated the research.
 Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, spiral or helical.

Purposes of Research
Research is done for a variety of purposes. These include exploring, describing, predicting,
explaining, or evaluating some phenomenon or set of phenomena. Some research is aimed at
replicating results from previous studies; other research is focused on quantitatively
synthesizing a body of research. These two types of efforts are directed at strengthening a
theory, verifying predictions, or probing the robustness of explanations by seeing if they hold
true for different types of individuals, organizations, or settings.
Exploration. Very little may be known about some phenomena such as new types of settings,
practices, or groups. Here, the research question focuses on identifying salient characteristics
or features that merit further and more concerted examination in additional studies.

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Description. Often, research is initiated to carefully describe a phenomenon or problem in
terms of its structure, form, key ingredients, magnitude, and/or changes over time. The
resulting profiles can either be qualitative or narrative, quantitative, or a mixture of both.
Prediction. Some questions seek to predict the occurrence of specific phenomena or states on
the basis of one or more other characteristics. Short-and long-term planning is often the main
rationale for this type of research.
Explanation. It is possible to be able to predict the occurrence of a certain phenomenon but
not to know exactly why this relationship exists. In explanatory research, the aim is to not
only predict the outcome or state of interest but also understand the mechanisms and
processes that result in one variable causing another.
Evaluation. Questions of this nature focus on evaluating or judging the worth of something,
typically an intervention or program. Of primary interest is to learn whether an organized set
of activities that is aimed at correcting some problem (e.g., poor academic skills, low self-
esteem, disruptive behavior) is effective. When these efforts are targeted at evaluating the
potential or actual success of policies, regulations, and laws, this is often known as policy
analysis.
Replication. Some questions revolve around whether a demonstrated relationship between
two variables can be again found in different populations or different types of settings.
Because few studies can incorporate all relevant populations and settings, it is important to
determine how generalizable the results of a study to a particular group or program are.
Synthesis. Taking stock of what is known and what is not known is a major function of
research. "Summing-up" a body of prior research can take quantitative (e.g., meta-analysis)
and qualitative (narrative summaries) forms.

Some early steps in research

Defining the research problem
Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem. The
problem statement is therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around, because it
explains in short the aim of the research.
What is a research problem?
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused
and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the
WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification.
 Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply.
 A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and
notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
 Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying
contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or

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unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving
existing practical problems.
Identification of the problem
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research. The
question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to which answers
have not been found up to the present?
Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and
the PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think
about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, i.e. find answers to
the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are
meaningless.
Keep the following in mind:
 Outline the general context of the problem area.
 Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
 What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
 Why are these issues identified important?
 What needs to be solved?
Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or to identify the most significant issues for further
exploration.
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking
on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated
problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely
as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless
words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are.
Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub-
problems is of the utmost importance.
Reviewing the literature
This means reading other researchers' studies to learn how they did their research and what
they found. It has been said that contemporary researchers are "great because they stand on
the shoulders of those who have completed earlier research," that is, because they can utilize
the knowledge learned by earlier researchers. Although it is very time consuming, reviewing
the literature will help you decide which variables (i.e., factors) are important to study, how to
measure (i.e., assess) them, and what findings to expect.
Remember, you can "borrow" anything you want from other studies as long as you give the
authors proper credit. In fact, you are expected to use their work to make your study better. If
you don't review the literature, you are missing out on a lot of good information and you will
be considered "lazy" by other researchers. In short, the library is your friend! (See Literature
Review for more details)

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Determining the research question
The research question is the question you hope to answer with your study. The literature
review will help you decide which questions are important, especially as you gain familiarity
with the topic and begin to see its finer nuances.
Determining the research question is an important step because it will help guide the design of
your research study.
Example 1:
Research topic: Memorization and EFL Students' Strategies at University Level in Vietnam
(Duong & Nguyen, 2006)
Research Questions
Is memorization considered a learner strategy?
What are students' beliefs and attitudes towards memorization in learning EFL?

Example 2:
Research topic: Task Difficulty in Oral Speech Act Production (Taguchi, 2007)
Research Questions
This study used social variables to develop different task situations for speech acts and
analyzed L2 speech acts according to three criteria: overall appropriateness, planning
time, and oral fluency operationalized as speech rate. The study also examined whether
the task characteristics showed differential effect according to learners’ proficiency levels.
Three research questions guided this investigation:
Do the type of social situations and L2 proficiency have differential effects on the
appropriateness of L2 speech act production?
Do the type of social situations and L2 proficiency have differential effects on the planning
speed of L2 speech act production?
Do the type of social situations and L2 proficiency have differential effects on the speech
rate of L2 speech act production?

Developing a hypothesis
According to Vogt's Dictionary of Research Methods and Statistics (1993, Sage Publications),
a hypothesis is: "A statement of the relationships among the variables that a researcher intends
to study." This definition brings out two important ideas. First, hypotheses are assertions
about how two or more variables are related to or associated with each another.
Assume that we're interested in studying why the second year English students fail to
pronounce English final sounds properly. One possible hypothesis is: Students fail to
pronounce English final consonants properly because they are not properly trained. This
hypothesis posits that students' poor pronunciation and training are related, and suggests that
those who are not properly trained will fail to pronounce English final consonants properly. It
is testable, because we could see if students fail because they are not properly trained (versus
poor pronunciation for other reasons). Hypotheses should both say what we expect to find in
our research and be testable.
The second concept the definition illustrates is the idea that hypotheses are formulated for
variables that we intend to study. In other words, the hypotheses are formulated before we do
our research. It's not considered proper to do the research, poke around in the data, and then
write up a hypothesis that "fits" what we found. Hypotheses should be based on theory and

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what previous researchers have found; they are not just made up "off the cuff." Hypotheses
are scientifically reasonable predictions.
Remember, all good hypotheses are testable, and make specific predictions about what the
researcher expects to find in his/her research. The development and testing of hypotheses is
one of the important things that makes research scientific.
Example:
Research Topic: Language Learning Strategies Used by Non-English Majors in A Chinese
University — Individual and Cultural Factors (Rao, 2004)
Hypotheses:
This study is located as a part of research on LLS worldwide. It is based on two
hypotheses for the learning strategies used by Chinese university students.
First, it is hypothesized that the success of good English learners could be attributed in
part to their use of learning strategies, including using a range of strategies with greater
frequency, choosing appropriate strategies for different learning tasks, and managing
English learning effectively. Such a link is anticipated from the existing findings of Chamot
and Impink-Hernandez (1988), Green and Oxford (1995), Politzer and McGroarty (1985),
and Wharton (2000).
Second, it is hypothesized that Chinese students’ EFL learning is influenced by their
cultural and educational background, and that there might be some distinctive
characteristics in their strategy use related to this. This hypothesis is based on the
findings of Cortazzi and Jin (1996), Hau (1992) and Hofstede (1991).

Constructing a research proposal

A research proposal is a specific kind of document written for a specific purpose. Research
proposals are used when beginning a research project. They are used when other people are
involved in formulating, supervising or conducting the research. Once developed, the research
proposal serves as a plan for conducting the research. It should provide:
 an outline of the research project;
 a rationale that explains why the research is important;
 some background information about the field of the research;
 information about the method, methodology and analytic approach adopted;
 a realistic timetable for completion of the research;
 information about ethical considerations and special requirements;
 information about anticipated problems and how they will be dealt with.
 (See Research proposal for more details)

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 RESEARCH PROPOSALS
A research proposal is similar in a number of ways to a project proposal; however, a
research proposal addresses a particular project: academic or scientific research. The forms
and procedures for such research are well defined by the field of study, so guidelines for
research proposals are generally more exacting than less formal project proposals. Research
proposals contain extensive literature reviews and must offer convincing support of need for
the research study being proposed. The proposal must be accepted by a panel of
experts/lecturers before the actual research can begin. In addition to providing rationale for
the proposed research, the proposal must describe a detailed methodology for conducting the
research. The sections below offer explanations of research proposals.

Aims
The aim of the research proposal is to convince your Department and College that:
 There is a need for the research; it is significant and important.
 You are contributing something to the field.
 The topic is feasible in terms of availability of equipment, supervisors, and data.
 The research can be completed in the expected time period.
 The topic matches your interests and capabilities.

Your Goal
The research proposal helps you focus your research aims, clarify its importance and the need,
describe the methods, predict problems and outcomes, and plan alternatives and interventions.

How to structure the proposal?

The following sections are recommended for your research proposal report. Check with your
supervisor(s) for optional sections, variations and additional sections that may be required.
Routine Information
This can be a full cover page or a quarter page header.
 Name of College/ University
 Name of Department
 Research proposal title
 Your name
 Supervisor's and co-supervisor's names
 Address, telephone and email details
 Date
Statement of Topic

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Introduce the reader to the recognized general subject area and how your topic is related.
Briefly point out why it is a significant topic and what contribution your work will make.
Aims of the thesis
Set out aims and specific objectives of the research.
For example, the aims and objectives of a study entitled "Chinese Learners and English Plural
Forms" by Jing, Tindall, & Nisbet are set as follows:
This study explores the challenges that Chinese students encounter in the formation of
English plurals. To this end, the authors (a) examine linguistic features of Chinese and
English that may affect plural formation in English, (b) highlight specific areas of
challenge for Chinese learners, and (c) present an array of recommended instructional
practices. (Jing, Tindall, & Nisbet, 2006)

Review of the literature

This, together with the following section on the theoretical orientation, will be the main
substance of the proposal and will lay the basis for your discussions of your methods and your
total research program.
The literature review should explain the relation of your topic and research aims to significant
literature and recent (and current) research in your field. The form of the literature review
may vary according to the nature of the field: experimental, philosophical, theoretical,
comparative, etc., but its purpose will be the same in all fields. The literature review should
place your proposed research topic clearly in its relevant research context, and should
demonstrate your awareness of significant similar or relevant research.
Be careful not to allow the evaluation of previous work to become a large open-ended task.
You should consult with your supervisors on the types of questions you need to be asking and
what boundaries you should place on your literature review.
In one sense the literature review for the proposal is incomplete. You will continue to expand
and update the literature as your research progresses and as you locate new publications. The
final literature review will be included in your thesis. (See the chapter Literature Review for
more details)

Theoretical Orientation
Your aim here is to state your basic ideas on the topic.
 First, state the various theoretical approaches taken in your topic. Which one do you
propose to use in your research and why? Where, tentatively do you stand on the topic?
 If there are various theories on your topic or in your field, which one(s) will you use in
your conceptual framework for your thesis?
 Which terms or trends do you wish to follow up from the literature review?
 Do you have any fresh suggestions of an explanatory, interpretative, or programmatic
kind? Ask Yourself . . .
 Which pieces of research seem to have been most successful, the most promising and
which less so?
 What are the major lines of criticism that can be leveled at previous work?

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  What major omissions, gaps or neglected emphases can be identified?
Perhaps the best way to approach this section is to set down your main insights, hypotheses,
hunches, or even hopes about your topic.
In view of past theory and research, and your emerging issues, what are the areas that you
expect to have findings?
For empirical theses you may need to formulate explicit hypotheses.

The Design--Methods and Procedures

The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities
should be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should
be apparent.
Sampling
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative
part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population. (See Data Collection for more details)
Instrumentation
Outline the instruments you propose to use. If instruments have previously been used, identify
previous studies and findings related to reliability and validity. If instruments have not
previously been used, outline procedures you will follow to develop and test their reliability
and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly essential.
Data Collection
Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration
procedures, interview or observation procedures.
Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow.
Data Analysis
Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g., ANOVA, MANCOVA,
ethnography, case study, grounded theory). If coding procedures are to be used, describe in
reasonable detail. This labeling is helpful in communicating your precise intentions to the
reader, and it helps you and the reader to evaluate these intentions.
Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use.
Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the design, methodology, and
analyses you have selected.

Limitations and Delimitations

A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.
A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope--how it is bounded. This is
the place to explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do
them--the literature you will not review (and why not), the population you are not studying
(and why not), the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use
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them). Limit your discussion of delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably
expect you to do but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.
Example:
Research topic: Foreign language education policy in Vietnam: the emergence of English
and its impact on higher education (Do, 1996)
Limitations
The study aims to investigate four issues of Vietnam’s foreign language education: the
factors affecting the national foreign language education policy, the national foreign
language education policy, student attitudes and motivation toward the policy and
especially the reemergence of English, and, finally, the impact of English on higher
education. The investigation mainly covered a period of ten years since doi moi. An
overview of foreign language education in war-time and after national reunification was
also presented to show the link between the policy and the factors affecting it through
various historical periods and identify the main factors affecting policy and
implementation. The study particularly emphasized the current reemergence of English
after the implementation of doi moi. All this was done through an examination of
government documents, interviews with selected top educational officials, university
faculty and students’ parents, and a questionnaire and follow-up interviews with university
students.
Delimitations
Due to the nature of this study and the research methods of data collection,
generalizations and recommendations will be limited to the higher education setting in
Vietnam. The particular composition of the sample of Vietnamese higher education
students participating in the study may also limit the generalizability of the results. The
recommendations from this study for Vietnamese educational planners and foreign
language specialists may, however, be beneficial to others in similar situations.

Research program timetable: milestones

This will usually be from the date you began third year to when you expect to submit the
completed thesis.
The time-line can be formatted as a table or a list. Include when you will start and finish
important aspects of your research, such as: literature research, required training or attending
courses, stages of experiments or investigations, beginning and completing chapters, reviews
and seminars you will give, and completing the thesis.
 An important planning tool for the researcher
 Help establish your competence
 Be realistic! Novice researchers tend to underestimate how long the stages of research
will take

Tentative thesis chapter outline

You should check with your supervisor if this is a required section of the research proposal.
Present the chapter outline as a draft contents page with brief annotations of expected content
or stages. Follow the standard sections relevant to your type of research. Look at past theses
in your area and discuss your ideas with your supervisor.

References
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List all publications cited in your proposal. Use the style recommended by the college or your
supervisor. This may be a standard style the whole college follows or it may be the style of
the leading journal in your field.

A suggested format for research proposal

The Format of a Research Proposal
1. Introduction
a. The problem statement
b. A rationale for the research
c. Statement of the research aims & objectives
d. Hypothesis/ Research Questions
e. Definition of terms
f. Summary including a restatement of the problem
2. A brief review of the relevant literature
a. The importance of the question being asked
b. The current status of the topic
c. The relationship between literature and problem statement
d. Summary including a restatement of the relationships between the important
variables under consideration and how these relationships are important to the
hypothesis proposed in the introduction
3. Method
a. Participants (including description and selection procedures)
b. Research design
c. Data collection plans
i. Operational definition of all variables
ii. Reliability and validity of instruments
iii. Results of pilot studies
d. Proposed analysis of data
e. Expected Results of data
4. Limitations and delimitations
5. Time line
6. Tentative thesis chapter outline
7. References
8. Appendices

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The "literature" of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic, not
necessarily the great literary texts of the world. "Literature" could be anything from a set of
government documents related to policy of foreign language instruction to scholarly articles
on English teaching and learning or aspects of the English language. And a review does not
necessarily mean that your reader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not
you liked these sources.
What is a literature review?
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and
sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.
'Literature' can include a range of sources:
Journal articles Empirical studies
Monographs Historical records
Computerized databases Statistical handbooks
Conferences proceedings Government reports and reports from other
Dissertations bodies

A number of these may be on the web. You should approach such material with the same
critical eye as you approach printed material.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of
the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling,
of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with
old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major
debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and
advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.
A literature review vs. an academic research paper
While the main focus of an academic research paper is to support your own argument, the
focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others.
The academic research paper also covers a range of sources, but it is usually a select number
of sources, because the emphasis is on the argument. Likewise, a literature review can also
have an "argument," but it is not as important as covering a number of sources. In short, an
academic research paper and a literature review contain some of the same elements. In fact,
many academic research papers will contain a literature review section. But it is the aspect of
the study (the argument or the sources) that is emphasized that determines what type of
document it is.
Why do you need to review the literature?
A review of the literature has the following functions:

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  To justify your choice of research question, theoretical or conceptual framework, and
method
 To establish the importance of the topic
 To provide background information needed to understand the study
 To show readers you are familiar with significant and/or up-to-date research relevant to
the topic
 To establish your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing knowledge
in your field.
The review traditionally provides a historical overview of the theory and the research
literature, with a special emphasis on the literature specific to the thesis topic. It serves as well
to support the argument/proposition behind your thesis, using evidence drawn from
authorities or experts in your research field.
Your review of the literature may be:
 stand-alone, or
 embedded in the discussion, or
 segmented into a series of chapters on several topics
The review must be shaped by a focus on key areas of interest, including research which
provides a background to the topic. It should also be selective. A common mistake in writing
the review is to comment on everything you have read regardless of its relevance. In your
writing it is useful to think of the review as a funnel - start wide with the overview and then
quickly narrow into discussing the research that relates to your specific topic.

Things to do before writing the literature review

Asking yourself
Questions you need to ask yourself when you are planning and drafting your Literature
Review:
 What has been done in your field of research? What principles of selection are you
going to use?
 How are you going to order your discussion? Chronological, thematic, conceptual,
methodological, or a combination? What section headings will you use?
 How do the various studies relate to each other? What precise contribution do they
make to the field? What are their limitations?
 How does your own research fit into what has already been done?
Being specific
If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor:
 Roughly how many sources should you include?
 What types of sources (books, journal articles, websites)?
 Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a common
theme or issue?
 Should you evaluate your sources?

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  Should you provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions
and/or a history?

Finding models
Look for other literature reviews in your area of interest or in the discipline and read them to
get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or ways to
organize your final review. You can simply put the word "review" in your search engine
along with your other topic terms to find articles of this type on the Internet or in an electronic
database. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read are also
excellent entry points into your own research.
Narrowing your topic
There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study. The
narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in
order to get a good survey of the material. Your instructor will probably not expect you to
read everything that's out there on the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first limit
your scope.
And don't forget to tap into your professor's (or other professors') knowledge in the field. Ask
your professor questions such as: "If you had to read only one book from the 70's on topic X,
what would it be?" Questions such as this help you to find and determine quickly the most
seminal pieces in the field.
Considering whether your sources are current
Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. In the
sciences, for instance, treatments for medical problems are constantly changing according to
the latest studies. Information even two years old could be obsolete. However, if you are
writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, a survey of the history of the
literature may be what is needed, because what is important is how perspectives have changed
through the years or within a certain time period. Try sorting through some other current
bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects.
You can also use this method to consider what is "hot" and what is not.

Strategies for Writing the Literature Review

Finding a focus
A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the sources
themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that you will not
just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a time. No. As
you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what themes or issues
connect your sources together. Do they present one or different solutions? Is there an aspect
of the field that is missing? How well do they present the material and do they portray it
according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a trend in the field? A raging debate? Pick
one of these themes to focus the organization of your review.

Considering organization
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You've got a focus, and you've narrowed it down to a thesis statement. Now what is the most
effective way of presenting the information? What are the most important topics, subtopics,
etc., that your review needs to include? And in what order should you present them? Develop
an organization for your review at both a global and local level:
Covering the basic categories
Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic
elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review
containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations
section to end the paper.
 Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central
theme or organizational pattern.
 Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either chronologically,
thematically, or methodologically (see below for more information on each).
 Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing
literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?
Organizing the body
Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the
sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus
this section even further.
 Chronological If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about
the materials above according to when they were published.
 By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order
demonstrates a more important trend.
 By Trend A better way to organize the sources chronologically is to examine the
sources under another trend. Then your review would have subsections according to
eras within this period.
 Thematic Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather
than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important
factor in a thematic review. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a
"thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the theme or
the theme itself. But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from
chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time
periods within each section according to the point made.
 Methodological A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the
focusing factor usually does not have to do with the content of the material. Instead, it
focuses on the "methods" of the researcher or writer. A methodological scope will
influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these
documents are discussed.
Once you've decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections
you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your
organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for
each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate
to the theme or issue.

14
Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are necessary for your
study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you
include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections
you might want to consider:
 Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the
literature review.
 History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is
necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not
already a chronology.
 Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in your literature
review or the way in which you present your information. For instance, you might
explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.
 Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review
sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

Writing the literature review

Once you've settled on a general pattern of organization, you're ready to write each section.
There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well. Here is a
sample paragraph from a literature review about sexism and language to illuminate the
following discussion:
However, other studies have shown that even gender-neutral antecedents are more
likely to produce masculine images than feminine ones (Gastil, 1990). Hamilton
(1988) asked students to complete sentences that required them to fill in pronouns
that agreed with gender-neutral antecedents such as "writer," "pedestrian," and
"persons." The students were asked to describe any image they had when writing
the sentence. Hamilton found that people imagined 3.3 men to each woman in the
masculine "generic" condition and 1.5 men per woman in the unbiased condition.
Thus, while ambient sexism accounted for some of the masculine bias, sexist
language amplified the effect.
(Source: Erika Falk and Jordan Mills, "Why Sexist Language Affects Persuasion: The Role of
Homophily, Intended Audience, and Offense," Women and Language19:2.)

Using evidence
In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their point. A
literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper. Your
interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you
are saying is valid.
Being selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of
information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review's focus, whether it is
thematic, methodological, or chronological.

15
Using quotes sparingly
Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. That is because the survey nature of the literature
review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text. Some short
quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author
said just cannot be rewritten in your own words. Notice that Falk and Mills do quote certain
terms that were coined by the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the
study. But if you find yourself wanting to put in more quotes, check with your instructor.
Summarizing and synthesizing
Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as
throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of Hamilton's study,
but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to their own work.
Keeping your own voice
While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice (the writer's) should remain front
and center. Notice that Falk and Mills weave references to other sources into their own text,
but they still maintain their own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with their own
ideas and their own words. The sources support what Falk and Mills are saying.
Using caution when paraphrasing
When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information
or opinions accurately and in your own words. In the preceding example, Falk and Mills
either directly refer in the text to the author of their source, such as Hamilton, or they provide
ample notation in the text when the ideas they are mentioning are not their own, for example,
Gastil's.
Paraphrasing or quoting?
You will need to introduce the work of others to your reader, and you can do this in different
ways.
You can:
 directly quote the words of other researchers, making sure you integrate the quote
properly, or
 paraphrase other researchers' ideas by expressing the ideas in your own words
Direct quotation is thus found more commonly in humanities and social science writing, and
not so frequently in the science and technology disciplines. For the most part, you should aim
to paraphrase.
Rarely is the original text written with your particular focus as its main concern. Your
examiner will be looking to see how well you can utilize the sources for your own ends.
Direct quotations are commonly used to highlight:
 author's definitions of important terms
 assumptions underlying the author's choice of words
 particularly illustrative examples of an author's specific view, difficult to paraphrase
 particularly well-expressed opinions, revealing insights which a paraphrase could not
capture

16
When you use direct quotation, it needs to fit grammatically with the rest of your sentence. A
variety of constructions is available. The important thing to consider is how you put this all
together to give a picture of your own research in relation to others'. You will be showing
your attitude toward that research, whether you consider it outdated or still viable, close to
your own perspective, etc.
Reporting words
The following section lists some useful expressions for critically presenting other writers'
ideas.
Reporting verbs or expressions are used to report on what other authors have done: whether
they have made claims, argued a case, established findings, drawn conclusions, etc. Note the
differences in these verbs: your choice of word will reveal to your reader your attitude toward
the status of the author's theories/research; it will also indicate whether or not you consider
her/his claims to be substantiated.
 Group 1 Author's argument (author making a point to develop or justify his/her
argument)
 Group 2 Author's emphasis (author drawing reader's attention to a particular point)
 Group 3 Author's references to other authors (author positioning him/herself against
other authors)
 Group 4 Author's omissions (author not fully arguing a point)
 Group 5 Author's admissions (author conceding a point of potential weakness)

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5

Account for Draw attention to Challenge Assume Acknowledge
Argue Emphasize Dispute Take for granted Recognize
Claim Focus on Reject
Contend Insist Support
Establish Note
Find Observe
Hold the view Point out
Maintain Reiterate
Propose Remark
Prove Stress
Recommend Underline
Suggest

Indicating your own position

There are a number of ways of indicating your position in relation to previous research. The
following is a sample of the kinds of evaluative expressions which may be used to indicate
your own views of the authors you cite.
The research:

disregarded X overestimated X

17
 neglected to consider X
overlooked X suffered from X
underestimated X requires excessive amounts of (time/storage, etc)
has been limited to X has taken no account of X.

Which of the following adjectives have you seen used in your discipline - and in what way?
Some may have positive OR negative connotations depending on the discipline and what it
values.

The research/theory is:

incomplete robust
efficient inconclusive
questionable unsatisfactory
useful comprehensive
simple complex
reliable over-simplified
too general cumbersome

You can expand your repertoire of evaluative expressions by reading articles or other theses
attentively.
Revising
Draft in hand? Now you're ready to revise. Spending a lot of time revising is a wise idea,
because your main objective is to present the material, not the argument. So check over your
review again to make sure it follows the assignment and/or your outline. Then, just as you
would for most other academic forms of writing, rewrite or rework the language of your
review so that you've presented your information in the most concise manner possible. Be
sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary jargon or slang.
Finally, double check that you've documented your sources and formatted the review
appropriately for your discipline.

18
 RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY
Definitions of some terms
Methods: 'the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze data related to some
research question or hypothesis' (Crotty, 1998).
Methodology: 'the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use
of particular methods, and linking the choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes'
(Crotty, 1998). This includes not only the practical aspects of the research such as method and
action plan, but also the philosophical and theoretical perspectives of the researcher.
Paradigm: ‘A general organizing framework for social theory and research. It includes basic
assumptions, underpinning questions asked, research practice and theory, and approaches or
methods for finding the answers to questions' (Neuman, 2000: 515).
Research design: The research plan that is devised to obtain answers to the research
questions. The research design can encompass the research aims, hypotheses or questions, the
methodology, methods of data collection, and the strategies used to analyze the data. The
research design tells the reader what you did, how you did it, and why you did it in this way.
In this section of your thesis or research proposal you explain and justify the theoretical and
philosophical assumptions underpinning the research, and the methods or strategies adopted.
Theoretical perspective: 'the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus
providing a context for grounding its logic and criteria' (Crotty, 1998: 3).
Epistemology: the study or theory of knowledge.
Ontology: the branch of metaphysics that investigates the nature of being.
Primary research: In primary research, data is collected specifically for the study at hand. It
can be obtained either by the investigator observing the subject or phenomenon being studied,
or communicating directly or indirectly with the subject. Direct communication techniques
include such qualitative research techniques as in-depth interview, focus group and projective
techniques, and quantitative research techniques such as telephone, self-administered and
interview surveys.
Secondary research: Knowledge is cumulative: every piece of research will contribute
another piece to it. That is why it is important to commence all research with a review of the
related literature or research, and to determine whether any data sources exist already that can
be brought to bear on the problem at hand. This is also referred to as secondary research. Just
as each study relies on earlier work, it will provide a basis for future work by other
researchers.
Validity and reliability: Whether you are planning a research project or interpreting the
findings of someone else’s work, determining the impact of the results is dependent upon two
concepts: validity and reliability. Essentially, validity entails the question, “does your
measurement process, assessment, or project actually measure what you intend it to
measure?”. The related topic of reliability addresses whether repeated measurements or
assessments provide a consistent result given the same initial circumstances.
In research, validity has two essential parts: internal and external.

19
  Internal validity encompasses whether the results of the study (e.g. mean difference
between treatment and control groups) are legitimate because of the way the groups
were selected, data was recorded or analysis performed. For example, a study may have
poor internal validity if testing was not performed the same way in treatment and
control groups or if confounding variables were not accounted for in the study design
or analysis.
 External validity, often called 'generalizability', involves whether the results given by
the study are transferable to other groups (i.e. populations) of interest (Last, 2001). It is
through proper study design and strict protocol execution that high levels of validity,
both internal and external, can be achieved. An important point to remember when
discussing validity is that without internal validity, you cannot have external validity.
Results of a poorly designed or executed study are not applicable to any population, in
that particular study sample or otherwise.
A common threat to internal validity is reliability. Assuming the same initial conditions for a
test assessment or process the test must provide the same result every time it is performed for
it to be deemed reliable.
It is with these concepts in mind that methods sections in protocols and journal articles
provide such extensive detail related to how a study was designed and conducted. Threats to a
study’s validity and reliability exist at almost every turn in the research process. No one
researcher can see all the potential problems, so the team approach to the discussion of
validity and reliability during the development of the study design, and creating and following
study protocols can minimize the threats to validity and reliability.

Some key methodological frameworks

A brief overview of some major methodological frameworks is provided below (Bastalich,
2007).

Positivism
 is associated with ‘empiricism’, ‘behaviorism’, ‘naturalism’, or the ‘scientific' approach;
 is objectivist – holds that things are infused with meanings that exist independently of
consciousness and experience;
 rejects apriori knowledge of reality – knowledge of reality is seen to originate in sensory
experience (phenomenalism);
 accepts as valid only knowledge that can be empirically accessed and tested;
 assumes the unity of the scientific method (methodological monism) – all phenomenon
should ultimately be understood with a scientific method;
 assumes that human society is subject to laws in the same way that the natural world is;
 accepts a division between ‘fact’ and ‘value’ in which only empirically verifiable ideas
count as knowledge.

Constructionism
 (also called social constructivism) challenges the objectivist stance of positivism in which
essential meaning can be found within objects independent of consciousness;
 holds that ‘all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon
human practices, being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and
their world, and developed and transmitted within an essentially social context’ (Crotty,
1998:42);
 sees a reciprocal and interdependent relationship between objects in the world and
consciousness – ‘no object can be adequately described in isolation from the conscious

20
 being experiencing it, nor can any experience be adequately described in isolation from its
object’ (Crotty, 1998:45);
 accepts multiple interpretations of an object none of which are objectively ‘true’ or ‘valid’;
 Interpretivism:
 holds that the world, especially its social aspects, cannot be understood simply by
observation;
 sees our relationship to the world and its meaning as culturally mediated;
 assumes that consciousness plays an active role in acts of knowing;
 seeks to understand phenomenon as they are experienced or made meaningful by human
beings within specific social contexts.

Critical Theory
 has origins in the Frankfurt School of thought, influenced by Karl Marx's emphasis upon
social change and activism;
 agrees with interpretivism that all knowledge is socially and culturally grounded;
 rejects positivist view of science and insists that social processes must be understood
within their historical and cultural circumstances;
 rejects 'traditional theory' that seeks to understand society, and insists upon a critique of
social practices, institutions and events;
 aims to offer critical knowledge of socially constituted real structures and mechanisms that
underpin experience and events.

Structuralism
 associated with a period of research conducted principally in France from the 1950s to the
1970s;
 arises within a diverse discipline base including anthropology, philosophy, literary theory,
psychoanalysis, political theory;
 is strongly influenced by the structural linguistics of Saussure;
 understands language as an autonomous and closed system of internal relationships or
rules that precede and structure consciousness;
 society becomes intelligible through the study of its linguistic and other communicative
structures;
 society cannot be understood in isolated parts, but in the system of relationships which
make up the whole.

Research Design
Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to
structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project work together
to try to address the central research questions.
In other words, once the problem has been carefully defined, the researcher needs to establish
the plan that will outline the investigation to be carried out. The research design indicates the
steps that will be taken and in what sequence they occur.
There are two main types of research design:
Exploratory Research
As the term suggests, exploratory research is often conducted because a problem has not been
clearly defined as yet, or its real scope is as yet unclear. It allows the researcher to familiarize
him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be
tested. It is the initial research, before more conclusive research is undertaken. Exploratory

21
research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of
subjects, and sometimes it even concludes that the problem does not exist!
Another common reason for conducting exploratory research is to test concepts before they
are put in the marketplace, always a very costly endeavor. In concept testing, consumers are
provided either with a written concept or a prototype for a new, revised or repositioned
product, service or strategy.
Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
students, teachers, or educational administrators, and more formal approaches through in-
depth interviews, focus groups, case studies or pilot studies.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves,
but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of
qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something
occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many". In other words, the results can neither be
generalized; they are not representative of the whole population being studied.
Conclusive Research
As the term suggests, conclusive research is meant to provide information that is useful in
reaching conclusions or decision-making. It tends to be quantitative in nature, that is to say in
the form of numbers that can be quantified and summarized. It relies on both secondary data,
particularly existing databases that are reanalyzed to shed light on a different problem than the
original one for which they were constituted, and primary research, or data specifically
gathered for the current study.
The purpose of conclusive research is to provide a reliable or representative picture of the
population through the use of a valid research instrument. In the case of formal research, it
will also test hypothesis.
Conclusive research can be sub-divided into two major categories:
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the population or universe
being studied. But it can only describe the "who, what, when, where and how" of a situation,
not what caused it. Therefore, descriptive research is used when the objective is to provide a
systematic description that is as factual and accurate as possible. It provides the number of
times something occurs, or frequency, lends itself to statistical calculations such as
determining the average number of occurrences or central tendencies.
One of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine what causes a specific behavior,
motivation or occurrence. In other words, it cannot establish a causal research relationship
between variables.
The two most commonly types of descriptive research designs are observation and survey
techniques. (See Data Collection for more details)
Causal Research
If the objective is to determine which variable might be causing a certain behavior, i.e.
whether there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, causal research must be
undertaken. In order to determine causality, it is important to hold the variable that is assumed

22
to cause the change in the other variable(s) constant and then measure the changes in the other
variable(s). This type of research is very complex and the researcher can never be completely
certain that there are not other factors influencing the causal relationship, especially when
dealing with people’s attitudes and motivations. There are often much deeper psychological
considerations, that even the respondent may not be aware of.
There are two research methods for exploring the cause and effect relationship between
variables:

Experimentation

One way of establishing causality between variables is through the use of experimentation.
This highly controlled method allows the researcher to manipulate a specific independent
variable in order to determine what effect this manipulation would have on other dependent
variables. Experimentation also calls for a control group as well as an experimentation group,
and subjects would be assigned randomly to either group. The researcher can further decide
whether the experiment should take place in a laboratory or in the field, i.e. the "natural"
setting as opposed to an "artificial" one. Laboratory research allows the researcher to control
and/or eliminate as many intervening variables as possible.
The experimental design is conclusive research that is primary research in nature.
Experimentation is a quantitative research technique, but depending on how the experiment is
set up, it may relate more to observation than direct communication .

Simulation

Another way of establishing causality between variables is through the use of simulation.
A sophisticated set of mathematical formula are used to simulate or imitate a real life
situation. By changing one variable in the equation, it is possible to determine the effect on
the other variables in the equation. However, in language teaching and learning, computer
simulation and model building is rarely used. Its use tends to be limited to a few rare impact
and forecasting studies.
The simulation design is conclusive research that is secondary research in nature. Simulation
is a quantitative research technique.

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 DATA COLLECTION
Primary and secondary data
There is a basic distinction in data collection between primary and secondary data. Primary
data are data collected by the immediate user(s) of the data expressly for the experiment or
survey being conducted. It is this data that we will normally be referring to when we talk
about "collecting data".
By contrast, secondary data refers to any data collected by a person or organization other than
the user(s) of the data. Where does such data come from? If, as we have suggested, a wide
variety of individuals and organizations actually collect data, it follows that at least some of
that data will come to be made available to other individuals and organizations. This data may
be of considerable value, although the exact value will depend upon the type of study being
carried out.

Data collection techniques

Data collection techniques (Summerhill & Taylor, 1992) include document studies, screening
records and reports, direct observation of behavior, face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, focus group discussions, and questionnaires. If valid information is readily
available in records and reports, then further data collection may not be necessary; or, if direct
observation is feasible and will provide the information needed, then there may be no need to
ask people to respond to questions. However, these techniques are often not feasible or are
inadequate to provide the quality or quantity of information desired. Consequently, survey
instruments may be necessary to gather data from which judgments about programs can be
made.
To select a survey instrument, there are several factors to consider:
1. technical adequacy: reliability, validity, freedom from bias, etc.
2. practicality: cost, political consequences, duration, personnel needs, etc.
3. ethics: protection of human rights, privacy, legality, etc.
One should consider all of these factors to arrive at a decision. Usually a compromise is
reached that will produce a balance among these criteria without violating any of them to the
point that the technique is inadequate, unfeasible, or ethically indefensible (Stufflebeam,
1985).

Reliability and validity

It is generally agreed that "good" measures must be reliable and valid. Reliability is usually
concerned with stability over time. Validity is concerned with whether or not the item actually
elicits the intended information. Understanding these two terms is important to understanding
measurement in both theoretical and applied data gathering settings (Carmines & Zeller,
1979).

24
Reliable items
A reliable questionnaire item consistently conveys the same meaning. Will a person reading
the question interpret it the same way each time he or she reads it? If the question does not
convey a single meaning to a given person, we cannot be sure which meaning the respondent
had in mind when answering the question.
A simple and expedient way to test the reliability of items is to ask others (colleagues, some
of the respondent groups, etc.) to tell in their own words what specific terms mean. Through
this process, one can identify items that may not have a clear meaning to the respondent
group, and can adjust them accordingly. Specificity contributes to reliability.
Valid Items
Questionnaire items are valid if they are successful in eliciting true responses relevant to the
information desired. If the response is to be valid, it is essential that the respondent understand
the question as it is understood by those conducting the survey.
Also the respondent must be able to respond; he or she must have the information. If the
respondent does not have the information, a "don’t know" category could still make the
question valid.
To check validity, use the same approach as testing for reliability. Ask others (colleagues,
relatives, friends, etc.) to explain what the question is asking. Through this process one can
identify questions that do not seem to elicit the kind of information desired.

Sampling1
What is a sample?
A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can be defined as
a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey.
A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are
taken for measurement for example a population of presidents or professors, books or
students.
What is sampling?
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative
part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population.
What is the purpose of sampling?
To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which
enables us to determine a population's characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or
sample) of the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census)
of the population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the
whole, but we should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. In this
1
This section is adapted from (Mugo, 2007)
25
tutorial, we will investigate various kinds of sampling procedures. Some are better than others
but all may yield samples that are inaccurate and unreliable. We will learn how to minimize
these dangers, but some potential error is the price we must pay for the convenience and
savings the samples provide.
Types of samples
There are three primary kinds of samples: the convenience, the judgement sample, and the
random sample. They differ in the manner in which the elementary units are chosen.
The convenient sample
A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a
population for observation.
The judgment sample
A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with
the relevant characteristics of the population.
The random sample
This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known probability
that each elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as a
probability sample. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles. For
example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of 100, you can write
their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case, every name had
any equal chance of being picked. Random numbers can also be used.

Types of random samples

A simple random sample

A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each
unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

A systematic random sample

A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing
additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is
obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from
these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical order.
If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly
select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have picked is 4, that will be
your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every
5th name until you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected
students.

A stratified sample
A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample
from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based
on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of
education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C.
These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a

26
given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons
while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end
up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C.

A cluster sample
A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple
random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For
example, a cluster may be some thing like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the
elementary schools in New York State are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can
use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, then every school selected
becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on their opinion of some new
program which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed.
Sample size
Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study population. The
question of how large a sample should be is a difficult one. Sample size can be determined by
various constraints (e.g. the available funding). In general, sample size depends on the nature
of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve,
the kind and number of comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to
be examined simultaneously and how heterogeneous a universe is sampled.
Deciding on a sample size for qualitative inquiry can be even more difficult than quantitative
because there are no definite rules to be followed. It will depend on what you want to know,
the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, what will have credibility and
what can be done with available time and resources.

Data collection methods

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and
questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your
research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
 questionnaires  case-studies
 interviews  diaries
 focus group interviews  critical incidents
 observations  portfolios.
The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature
(usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you
can make counts of words used). Following are brief descriptions of these methods.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often
require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

27
Advantages
 Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone
survey.
 Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
 Can cover a large number of people or organizations.
 Wide geographic coverage.
 Relatively cheap.
 No prior arrangements are needed.
 Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
 Respondent can consider responses.
 Possible anonymity of respondent.
 No interviewer bias.
Disadvantages
 Design problems.
 Questions have to be relatively simple.
 Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
 Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
 Require a return deadline.
 Several reminders may be required.
 Assumes no literacy problems.
 No control over who completes it.
 Not possible to give assistance if required.
 Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
 Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
 Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or
not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too
personal.
Design of postal questionnaires
Theme and covering letter

The general theme of the questionnaire should be made explicit in a covering letter. You
should state who you are; why the data is required; give, if necessary, an assurance of
confidentiality and/or anonymity; and contact number and address or telephone number. This
ensures that the respondents know what they are committing themselves to, and also that they
understand the context of their replies. If possible, you should offer an estimate of the
completion time. Instructions for return should be included with the return date made obvious.
For example: ‘It would be appreciated if you could return the completed questionnaire by... if
at all possible’.

Instructions for completion

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You need to provide clear and unambiguous instructions for completion. Within most
questionnaires these are general instructions and specific instructions for particular question
structures. It is usually best to separate these, supplying the general instructions as a preamble
to the questionnaire, but leaving the specific instructions until the questions to which they
apply. The response method should be indicated (circle, tick, cross, etc.). Wherever possible,
and certainly if a slightly unfamiliar response system is employed, you should give an
example.

Appearance

Appearance is usually the first feature of the questionnaire to which the recipient reacts. A
neat and professional look will encourage further consideration of your request, increasing
your response rate. In addition, careful thought to layout should help your analysis. There are
a number of simple rules to help improve questionnaire appearance:
 Liberal spacing makes the reading easier.
 Photo-reduction can produce more space without reducing content.
 Consistent positioning of response boxes, usually to the right, speeds up completion
and also avoids inadvertent omission of responses.
 Choose the font style to maximize legibility.
 Differentiate between instructions and questions. Either lower case and capitals can be
used, or responses can be boxed.

Length

There may be a strong temptation to include any vaguely interesting questions, but you should
resist this at all costs. Excessive size can only reduce response rates. If a long questionnaire is
necessary, then you must give even more thought to appearance. It is best to leave pages
unnumbered; for respondents to flick to the end and see ‘page 27’ can be very disconcerting!

Order

Probably the most crucial stage in questionnaire response is the beginning. Once the
respondents have started to complete the questions they will normally finish the task, unless it
is very long or difficult. Consequently, you need to select the opening questions with care.
Usually the best approach is to ask for biographical details first, as the respondents should
know all the answers without much thought. Another benefit is that an easy start provides
practice in answering questions.
Once the introduction has been achieved the subsequent order will depend on many
considerations. You should be aware of the varying importance of different questions.
Essential information should appear early, just in case the questionnaire is not completed. For
the same reasons, relatively unimportant questions can be placed towards the end. If questions
are likely to provoke the respondent and remain unanswered, these too are best left until the
end, in the hope of obtaining answers to everything else.

Coding

29
If analysis of the results is to be carried out using a statistical package or spreadsheet it is
advisable to code non-numerical responses when designing the questionnaire, rather than
trying to code the responses when they are returned. An example of coding is:

Male [ ] Female [ ]
1 2
The coded responses (1 or 2) are then used for the analysis.

Thank you

Respondents to questionnaires rarely benefit personally from their efforts and the least the
researcher can do is to thank them. Even though the covering letter will express appreciation
for the help given, it is also a nice gesture to finish the questionnaire with a further thank you.
Questions
 Keep the questions short, simple and to the point; avoid all unnecessary words.
 Use words and phrases that are unambiguous and familiar to the respondent. For
example, 'dinner' has a number of different interpretations; use an alternative
expression such as 'evening meal'.
 Only ask questions that the respondent can answer. Hypothetical questions should be
avoided. Avoid calculations and questions that require a lot of memory work, for
example, 'How many grammar lessons did you attend last year?'
 Vacuous words or phrases should be avoided. 'Generally', 'usually', or 'normally' are
imprecise terms with various meanings. They should be replaced with quantitative
statements, for example, 'at least once a week'.
 Questions should only address a single issue. For example, questions like: 'Do you take
extra grammar lessons at evening classes? 'should be broken down into two discreet
stages, firstly find out if the respondent takes extra grammar lessons, and then secondly
find out if they go to evening classes.
 Do not ask two questions in one by using 'and'. For example, 'Did you watch videos
and read newspapers in English last semester?'
 Avoid double negatives. For example, 'Is it not true that you did not read a newspaper
yesterday?' Respondents may tackle a double negative by switching both negatives and
then assuming that the same answer applies. This is not necessarily valid.
 Avoid emotive or embarrassing words usually connected with race, religion, politics,
sex, money.

Types of questions

Closed questions
A question is asked and then a number of possible answers are provided for the respondent.
The respondent selects the answer which is appropriate. Closed questions are particularly
useful in obtaining factual information:
Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
Did you watch television last night? Yes [ ] No [ ]

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Some ‘Yes/No’ questions have a third category ‘Do not know’. Experience shows that as long
as this alternative is not mentioned people will make a choice. Also the phrase ‘Do not know’
is ambiguous:
Do you agree with the introduction of the EMU?
Yes [ ] No [ ] Do not know [ ]
What was your main way of learning a new word? Tick one box only.

Saying it aloud [ ]

Writing it on the board [ ]

Translating it into Vietnamese [ ]

Making new sentences with it [ ]

Other means, please specify

With such lists you should always include an ‘other’ category, because not all possible
responses might have been included in the list of answers.
Sometimes the respondent can select more than one from the list. However, this makes
analysis difficult:
Why have you watched videos in English? Tick the relevant answer(s). You may tick as
many as you like.

I enjoy watching movies [ ]

Watching videos in English is useful for my [ ]

listening skills

My teachers advised me to do so [ ]

Other reason, please specify

Attitude questions
Frequently questions are asked to find out the respondents’ opinions or attitudes to a given
situation. A Likert scale2 provides a battery of attitude statements. The respondent then says
how much they agree or disagree with each one:
Read the following statements and then indicate by a tick whether you strongly agree,
agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the statement.

Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly

agree disagree

My English teacher is always explains

grammatical points in English.

There are many variations on this type of question. One variation is to have a ‘middle
statement’, for example, ‘Neither agree nor disagree’. However, many respondents take this

2
Attitude measurement used in research, where, in place of a numerical scale for answers, answers are given on
a scale ranging from complete agreement on one side to complete disagreement on the other side, with no
opinion in the middle.
31
as the easy option. Only having four statements, as above, forces the respondent into making a
positive or negative choice. Another variation is to rank the various attitude statements,
however, this can cause analysis problems:
Which of these characteristics do you like about your English lesson? Indicate the best
three in order, with the best being number 1.

Varied activities [ ]

Good presentation [ ]

Opportunities for speaking [ ]

Opportunities for pair work [ ]

Learner-centered [ ]

Friendly atmosphere [ ]

A semantic differential scale attempts to see how strongly an attitude is held by the
respondent. With these scales double-ended terms are given to the respondents who are asked
to indicate where their attitude lies on the scale between the terms. The response can be
indicated by putting a cross in a particular position or circling a number:
English pronunciation is: (circle the appropriate number)

Difficult 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Easy

Useless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Useful

Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Boring

For summary and analysis purposes, a ‘score’ of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven points of
the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed. This procedure has some
disadvantages. It is implicitly assumed that two people with the same strength of feeling will
mark the same point on the scale. This almost certainly will not be the case. When faced with
a semantic differential scale, some people will never, as a matter of principle, use the two end
indicators of 1 and 7. Effectively, therefore, they are using a five-point scale. Also scoring the
scale 1 to 7 assumes that they represent equidistant points on the continuous spectrum of
opinion. This again is probably not true. Nevertheless, within its limitations, the semantic
differential can provide a useful way of measuring and summarizing subjective opinions.
Other types of questions to determine peoples’ opinions or attitudes are:
Which one/two words best describes...?
Which of the following statements best describes...?
How much do you agree with the following statement...?

Open questions
An open question such as ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’ should be
used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the respondent to
elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the end of major
sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly offer

32
additional information. However, they should not be used to introduce a section since there is
a high risk of influencing later responses. The main problem of open questions is that many
different answers have to be summarized and possibly coded.
Testing – pilot survey
Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites will be
necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis. Do not assume that you
will write the questionnaire accurately and perfectly at the first attempt. If poorly designed,
you will collect inappropriate or inaccurate data and good analysis cannot then rectify the
situation.
To refine the questionnaire, you need to conduct a pilot survey. This is a small-scale trial prior
to the main survey that tests all your question planning. Amendments to questions can be
made. After making some amendments, the new version would be re-tested. If this re-test
produces more changes, another pilot would be undertaken and so on. For example, perhaps
responses to open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered the same
way can be omitted; difficult words replaced, etc.
It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed and
questioned if necessary. By timing each question, you can identify any questions that appear
too difficult, and you can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated completion time for
inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be use to test the coding and analytical
procedures to be performed later.
Distribution and return
The questionnaire should be checked for completeness to ensure that all pages are present and
that none is blank or illegible. It is usual to supply a prepaid addressed envelope for the return
of the questionnaire. You need to explain this in the covering letter and reinforce it at the end
of the questionnaire, after the ‘Thank you’.
Finally, many organizations are approached continually for information. Many, as a matter of
course, will not respond in a positive way.
Interviews
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying
reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be
undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at
home, in the street or in a shopping center, or some other agreed location.
Personal interview
Advantages

 Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.

 Good response rate.
 Completed and immediate.
 Possible in-depth questions.
 Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
 Can investigate motives and feelings.

33
  Can use recording equipment.
 Characteristics of respondent assessed tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.
 Can use props.
 If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
 Used to pilot other methods.

Disadvantages

 Need to set up interviews.

 Time consuming.
 Geographic limitations.
 Can be expensive.
 Normally need a set of questions.
 Respondent bias "tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end
interview quickly".
 Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
 Transcription and analysis can present problems - subjectivity.
 If many interviewers, training required.
Types of interview
Structured

 Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.

 Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.
 Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or
thought provoking.
 Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.

Semi-structured

The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to
express him or herself at length.

Unstructured

This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question.
The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an
unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the
respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why do you say
that?’ or, ‘That’s interesting, tell me more’ or, ‘Would you like to add anything else?’ being
typical probes.
The following section is a step-by-step guide to conducting an interview. You should
remember that all situations are different and therefore you may need refinements to the
approach.

34
Planning an interview

 List the areas in which you require information.

 Decide on type of interview.
 Transform areas into actual questions.
 Try them out on a friend or relative.
 Make an appointment with respondent(s) – discussing details of why and how long.
 Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed.

Conducting an interview

 Personally arrive on time be smart smile employ good manners find a balance between
– friendliness and objectivity.

 At the start introduce yourself re-confirm the purpose assure confidentiality – if relevant specify
– what will happen to the data.

 The questions speak slowly in a soft, yet audible tone of voice control your body language know the
– questions and topic ask all the questions.

 Responses recorded as you go on questionnaire written verbatim, but slow and time-consuming
– summarized by you taped – agree beforehand – have alternative method if not
acceptable consider effect on respondent’s answers proper equipment in good working
order sufficient tapes and batteries minimum of background noise.

 At the end ask if the respondent would like to give further details about anything or any questions
– about the research thank them.

Telephone interview
This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.

Advantages

 Relatively cheap.
 Quick.
 Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organizations.
 Wide geographic coverage.
 High response rate.
 No waiting.
 Spontaneous response.
 Help can be given to the respondent.
 Can tape answers.

Disadvantages

 Often connected with selling.

 Questionnaire required.

35
  Not everyone has a telephone.
 Repeat calls are inevitable.
 Time is wasted.
 Straightforward questions are required.
 Respondent has little time to think.
 Cannot use visual aids.
 Can cause irritation.
 Good telephone manner is required.
 Question of authority.

Getting started

Locate the respondent

Repeat calls may be necessary especially if you are trying to contact people in organizations
where you may have to go through secretaries.
You may not know an individual’s name or title – so there is the possibility of interviewing
the wrong person.
You can send an advance letter informing the respondent that you will be telephoning. This
can explain the purpose of the research.
Getting them to agree to take part:
 You need to state concisely the purpose of the call.
 Respondents will normally listen to this introduction before they decide to co-operate
or refuse.
When contact is made respondents may have questions or raise objections about why they
could not participate. You should be prepared for these.

Ensuring quality
Quality of questionnaire – follows the principles of questionnaire design. However, it must
be easy to move through as you cannot have long silences on the telephone.
Ability of interviewer – follows the principles of face-to-face interviewing.

Smooth implementation
Interview schedule – each interview schedule should have a cover page with number, name
and address. The cover sheet should make provision to record which call it is, the date and
time, the interviewer, the outcome of the call and space to note down specific times at which a
call-back has been arranged. Space should be provided to record the final outcome of the call
– was an interview refused, contact never made, number disconnected, etc.
Procedure for call-backs – a system for call-backs needs to be implemented. Interview
schedules should be sorted according to their status: weekday call-back, evening call-back,
weekend call-back, specific time call-back.
Comparison of postal, telephone and personal interview surveys

36
The table below compares the three common methods of postal, telephone and interview
surveys – it might help you to decide which one to use.

Table 1 Comparison of the three common methods of surveys

Postal survey Telephone survey Personal interview

Cost (assuming a good Often lowest Usually in-between Usually highest

response rate)

Ability to probe No personal contact Some chance for gathering Greatest opportunity for
or observation additional data through observation, building
elaboration on questions, rapport, and additional
but no personal probing
observation

Respondent ability to Yes Perhaps, but usually no Perhaps, if interview time is

complete at own prearranged with
convenience respondent

Interview bias No chance Some, perhaps due to Greatest chance

voice inflection

Ability to decide who Least Some Greatest

actually responds to
the questions

Impersonality Greatest Some due to lack of face- Least

to-face contact

Complex questions Least suitable Somewhat suitable More suitable

Visual aids Little opportunity No opportunity Greatest opportunity

Potential negative ‘Junk mail’ ‘Junk calls’ Invasion of privacy

respondent reaction

Interviewer control Least Some in selection of time Greatest

over interview to call
environment

Time lag between Greatest Least May be considerable if a

soliciting and receiving large area involved
response

Suitable types of Simple, mostly Some opportunity for open- Greatest opportunity for
questions dichotomous (yes/no) ended questions especially open-ended questions
and multiple choice if interview is recorded

Requirement for Least Medium Greatest

technical skills in
conducting interview

Response rate Low Usually high High

Focus group interviews

A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and
natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The

37
main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the
appropriate target talk about specific issues of interest.

Table 2 Elements of focus groups.

Element Focus Groups

Format Group session
Size 8-12 per session; invite twice as many
Length 1.5 to 2 hours
Number of sessions Varies; should be more than 1
Participants 1. Selected; by invitation only
2. Similar characteristics
Forms of data 1. Conversation, including tone of voice
2. Silences (words and issues)
3. Body language
Data collection 1. Audiotape
2. Transcribe
Moderator 1. Flexible yet focused
2. Uses interview guide; modify based on early sessions
Formats for 1. Selected quotations
reporting 2. Analysis of repeated themes

Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner. Observational methods may be:
 structured or unstructured
 disguised or undisguised
 natural or contrived
 personal
 mechanical
 non-participant
 participant, with the participant taking a number of different roles.
Structured or unstructured
In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how
the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and
the information needed is specified.
In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and
flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop
38
hypotheses. The potential for bias is high. Observation findings should be treated as
hypotheses to be tested rather than as conclusive findings.
Disguised or undisguised
In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave
naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people
disguised as shoppers.
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a
danger of the Hawthorne effect – people behave differently when being observed.
Natural or contrived
Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the environment, for
example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet.
In contrived observation, the respondents’ behavior is observed in an artificial environment,
for example, a food tasting session.

Personal

In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. The observer may
or may not normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The
observer merely records what takes place.

Mechanical

Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed. These
devices may or may not require the respondent’s direct participation. They are used for
continuously recording on-going behavior.

Non-participant

The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He
or she does not participate.

Participant

In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being
investigated. Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and
races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs
and practices of that culture. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology
(development, nature and laws of human society) and anthropology (physiological and
psychological study of man). Organizations can be viewed as ‘tribes’ with their own customs
and practices.
Case-studies
The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a
person, a small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve measuring what is
there and how it got there. In this sense, it is historical. It can enable the researcher to explore,
unravel and understand problems, issues and relationships. It cannot, however, allow the

39
researcher to generalize, that is, to argue that from one case-study the results, findings or
theory developed apply to other similar case-studies. The case looked at may be unique and,
therefore not representative of other instances. It is, of course, possible to look at several case-
studies to represent certain features of management that we are interested in studying. The
case-study approach is often done to make practical improvements. Contributions to general
knowledge are incidental.
The case-study method has four steps:
 Determine the present situation.
 Gather background information about the past and key variables.
 Test hypotheses. The background information collected will have been analyzed for
possible hypotheses. In this step, specific evidence about each hypothesis can be
gathered. This step aims to eliminate possibilities which conflict with the evidence
collected and to gain confidence for the important hypotheses. The culmination of this
step might be the development of an experimental design to test out more rigorously
the hypotheses developed, or it might be to take action to remedy the problem.
 Take remedial action. The aim is to check that the hypotheses tested actually work out
in practice. Some action, correction or improvement is made and a re-check carried out
on the situation to see what effect the change has brought about.
The case-study enables rich information to be gathered from which potentially useful
hypotheses can be generated. It can be a time-consuming process. It is also inefficient in
researching situations which are already well structured and where the important variables
have been identified. They lack utility when attempting to reach rigorous conclusions or
determining precise relationships between variables.
Diaries
A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on
professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of
thought! Diaries can record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management
research can provide information about work patterns and activities.
Advantages
 Useful for collecting information from employees.
 Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously.
 Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organization to another.
 Researcher not personally involved.
 Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing.
 Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited.
Disadvantages
 Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan
to do with the data.
 Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.
 Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings.
 Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming
and can be irritating after a while.
40
  Progress needs checking from time-to-time.
 Confidentiality is required as content may be critical.
 Analyses problems, so you need to consider how responses will be coded before the
subjects start filling in diaries.
Critical incidents
The critical incident technique is an attempt to identify the more ‘noteworthy’ aspects of job
behavior and is based on the assumption that jobs are composed of critical and non-critical
tasks. For example, a critical task might be defined as one that makes the difference between
success and failure in carrying out important parts of the job. The idea is to collect reports
about what people do that is particularly effective in contributing to good performance. The
incidents are scaled in order of difficulty, frequency and importance to the job as a whole.
The technique scores over the use of diaries as it is centered on specific happenings and on
what is judged as effective behavior. However, it is laborious and does not lend itself to
objective quantification.
Portfolios
In education, portfolio refers to a personal collection of information describing and
documenting a person’s achievements and learning. There is a variety of portfolios ranging
from learning logs to extended collections of achievement evidence. Portfolios are used for
many different purposes such as accreditation of prior experience, job search, continuing
professional development, certification of competences3.
For example, learner’s learning strategies may be expressed in terms of the number and
duration of ‘issues’ or problems being tackled at any one time. The compilation of problem
portfolios is recording information about how each problem arose, methods used to solve it,
difficulties encountered, etc. This analysis also raises questions about the learner’s use of
time. What proportion of time is occupied in checking; in handling problems given by
teachers or tasks; on self-generated problems; on ‘top-priority’ problems; on minor issues,
etc?
The main problem with this method and the use of diaries is getting people to agree to record
everything in sufficient detail for you to analyze. It is very time-consuming!
Data recording and analysis
When you are at the planning stage of your research design, it is worth thinking about how
you are going to record your data and, even more importantly, how you are going to analyze
it. It is pointless collecting data in a form that you cannot understand or analyze! In the next
two units, we help you with this. Make sure you check these issues out before you carry out
your primary data collection.
Data recording method Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was
recorded. For example, research events could be documented by:
 recording audio and/or video and transcribing later
 either a researcher or self-administered survey
 either closed ended survey or open ended survey

3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portfolio
41
  preparing ethnographic field notes from a participant/observer
 requesting that participants themselves take notes, compile and submit them to
researchers.
While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of objectivity and
subjectivity may be raised when data is analyzed.
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and
Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing inductive inferences
from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical
fluctuations) present in the data”.
While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times
analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and
analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in
observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of
the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography
content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data (field
notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).
An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of
research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual
readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of research.
Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.

Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data
analysis. These include:
 Having the necessary skills to analyze
 Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
 Drawing unbiased inference
 Inappropriate subgroup analysis
 Following acceptable norms for disciplines
 Determining statistical significance
 Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
 Providing honest and accurate analysis
 Manner of presenting data
 Environmental/contextual issues
 Data recording method
 Partitioning ‘text’ when analyzing qualitative data
 Training of staff conducting analyses

42
 WRITING A THESIS4
In some ways, writing a thesis is no different than writing other academic papers, and much of
the advice that appears elsewhere in this section will be relevant to the thesis writer. Still, as
any thesis writer will tell you, there are some important differences between writing a thesis
and writing a course paper. Moreover, because we feel that the best advice comes from those
who've actually "been there," the advice we offer here is gleaned from Dartmouth students
involved in the thesis-writing process.

Sizing up your topic

Most thesis writers caution that topics are almost always initially too big and try to include
too much. Some tips to remember:
 Make your topic broad enough to address an important issue, yet narrow enough to
address that issue thoroughly in the time allotted. You will want, in six months' time, to
feel as if you know just about everything about your topic.
 Understand the limitations of your particular situation. For instance, if your project
requires lab work or field work, know how much you can reasonably expect to
accomplish in the time you have.
 Understand that your topic will only seem bigger once you get into your research. If
your topic is interesting and rich, new issues and new ideas will always emerge, so,
focus your ideas tightly as soon as you are able. If you can't summarize your argument
in a single paragraph, your topic is too big.
 Think about pertinent classes you have taken or may want to consider taking while you
are working on your thesis. Theses are very time-consuming, so you may appreciate
being able to tie it into your other academic work (both because of the light your
research may shed on your other classes and because of the light your classes may shed
on your research).

Creating a timetable
Most students agree that you should begin your preliminary reading during the summer before
your senior year, and that you should count on reading right up until the time you finish your
thesis. You obviously will want to get a good sense of the context for your thesis early on, but
know that you will continue to find pertinent material throughout the entire time you are
working on your thesis. Most students reported doing the majority of their focused reading
and research during their senior fall.
As to the actual writing of the thesis: while most thesis writers were writing as they read (at
least to take notes or to write short summaries of existing scholarship), they found that they
did the majority of their writing during the winter term. Spring term is best reserved for
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editing and touching-up - things that take much longer for a thesis than they do for a regular
research paper.

Reading strategies
It's important to understand and accept that you are not going to know exactly what you are
looking for in the beginning.
Initially, you should read to explore. As you read, you will find that certain aspects of your
topic interest you more than others, and that certain approaches offer more opportunities for
new scholarly work.
Even if you are doing scientific experimentation, you need to be flexible in the beginning and
willing to modify the initial question you're trying to answer. As one science major told us, "I
had specific questions to answer when I started. As I got further, those questions were refined
and others evolved."
When it comes to secondary sources, pay attention to the footnotes. This strategy will help
you to contextualize your ideas. It will also tip you off to marginal issues in the field that have
not been overly explored.

Writing as you research

Perhaps the most useful tip we can give you is to write all through the research process. As
you read, take notes. Write summaries or short reactions to everything you read. It's also a
good idea to keep a journal. Not only will you find that you can cut and paste some of these
notes and summaries into your final project, but you'll also find that you've kept track of
where your information came from. If you have a good sense of what sources provided you
with what information, you can save yourself a lot of time.
In short, don't view the research process as entirely separate from the writing process.
Whether you are writing in the Humanities, Social Sciences, or Sciences, you should begin
drafting perhaps even before you finish your preliminary research. Granted, much will have to
be changed down the road, but the writing process itself will help you to answer some of your
questions and figure out where you need to do more research. One student notes that "Most
ideas won't coalesce just by reading without writing." Writing throughout the research
process keeps your thought process active and records your responses to new ideas as you're
having them.

Taming "The Beast"

Before they begin to research and to write, many students think of a thesis as just a really big
paper. It is indeed usually much larger in size than anything you will have tackled before. But
while the sheer bulk of the project is overwhelming, the nature of the thesis is actually more
complex than a matter of size. As one student put it, "There is absolutely no comparison at all
between even a 30 page research paper and 'The Beast.' It's just not in any way comparable."
There are few "tricks" to tame the "thesis beast," but what students recommend over and over
is starting early and having a structured work plan. Breaking your thesis up into smaller
components of things "to do" and things "to say" is the easiest way to make the project more
manageable. Your "to do" plan is your list of tasks: meetings with professors, due dates,
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books you need to read, articles you need to find, and so on. Your "to say" plan is your list of
argumentative goals for your thesis - what your points are and how you plan to make them.
If your "to say" plan starts to look unwieldy, think of each chapter of your thesis as a course
paper with its own discreet argument. But give yourself enough time in the drafting process to
make sure that your chapters are connected by good, strong transition paragraphs, and that
each chapter contributes clearly and coherently to your larger argument.
Remember to work closely with your advisor at every step of the process.

Writing your thesis sentence

Like all papers, your senior thesis needs to have a strong thesis sentence. Also make sure that
your thesis:
 Is a complete, declarative, beautifully written sentence. Don't express your thesis as
a question, and don't merely state your topic.
 Is an arguable point. If your thesis sentence doesn't have controversy attached to it,
then your thesis project will not be very interesting.
 Is well focused - not too big, and not too small.
 Is relevant to your research.
 Points to what's original, interesting, or unusual about your particular argument or
research. The reader should want to read your work.

Considering structure
When considering a structure for your thesis, be sure to outline, outline, outline. As you do
your reading, you'll begin to see relationships between ideas. Note those connections as you
go, and attempt your first outline as soon as you think you begin to glimpse even the vaguest
form for your paper. Of course these outlines will change as your thinking evolves - but each
outline you create will be helpful in keeping track of the evolution of your ideas, and in
determining the shape of the argument you eventually settle on.
As we've said earlier, once you have your outline you may find it easier to think in terms of
chapters rather than in terms of the thesis as a whole. You may even find that chapters are
good units to try to research, write and edit one at a time. However, we will remind you again
that it is important that you leave significant time in the writing process to synthesize these
smaller units into a unified and coherent document.

Questions to guide you in the revision process

Most students who we talked to recommended at least two full drafts of your thesis, as well as
numerous complex revisions of problem spots and individual chapters. Here we provide a
number of questions you might ask yourself as you revise, to ensure that your revision process
is thorough and effective:
 Do your argument and purpose remain clear throughout the paper?
 Is your tone appropriate?

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  Are you considerate to your reader? Appreciative of her level of knowledge/familiarity
with your topic?
 Have you given your reader a sense of the current views on your topic so that he has a
context in which to consider your argument?
 Does your paper's introduction clearly introduce your idea? Explain its significance?
Provide background information? Attract the interest of your audience? Provide a clear
plan for the paper? Present your thesis clearly?
 Does the body of your paper cover your major points in a logical order?
 Is each of your major points supported by the appropriate amount of evidence and
analysis?
 Do you make clear transitions as you move from point to point?
 Does your conclusion follow logically from your introduction and body?
Remember: advisors are crucial to the revising process. Who better to spot the problems in
your argument than a scholar in the field? And don't hesitate to ask others to look at your
thesis. Not only can your advisor have good advice for you, other professors and other thesis-
writers in your department may be very helpful

The worst part about writing a thesis

In general, students complain that thesis writing is time consuming and frustrating:
 "I'm sure you'll have a moment when you're editing one small part of one chapter and
you'll stop and can't even remember what you thesis is, and you'll realize that you're so
up to your neck in the grindstone (excuse the mixed metaphor) that you've lost the big
picture. It can be real drudgery at times."
 "The time. There's not enough of it, and the added burden of classes makes life tough in
winter and spring."
 "It's hanging over you all senior year. Even if you are right on schedule, the thesis is
not like an exam or a paper that is over and done with at the end of the term. Until you
turn it in, it's always there waiting for you."

The best part about writing a thesis

While writing a thesis can be frustrating, it's also a very rewarding experience. First, writing a
thesis presents you the challenge and the opportunity of pursuing a an intriguing intellectual
question. Second, they allow you to work in close proximity with an advisor. And finally,
there's that great feeling of satisfaction when the job is done.
Here are some testimonials:
 "The entire project has been amazing - knowing you've accomplished (or will
accomplish) such a major project is wonderful, and knowing that these ideas are yours
is satisfying. Working with professors has also been a highlight - I've gotten very close
to several professors as a result."
 "You have a substantial piece of work that's all yours at the end of the process, and you
can impress your friends at the presentation. If you stay on top of it and write as you
read, your thesis doesn't have to take away from your senior-year experience."

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 "I'm really glad I wrote a thesis and I'm really proud of it. It's more for you, and maybe
your advisors, than anything else. But don't do it unless you really love your topic and
are really crazy about the idea."
 "I think it's worth it, even if it's a tough experience sometimes. I think I'm a better
person for having done it, and I think later on in life when I need to tackle something
really big, I'll be ready."

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 GENERAL ADVICE FOR NON-MAJORS5
General advice
Every field of study has its own particular purposes, methods, and goals. In fact, the
disciplines of, say, English and Chemistry are so very different that a Chem major attempting
to write a Lit paper may very well find herself at a loss. "What does the professor mean when
he says that we need to create an argument about a text? I need facts to form my hypothesis.
Where does one find facts in a work of fiction? Am I supposed to discuss my research
methods, as I would in a lab report? What's the point of researching this problem if there can
be no definitive answers to the questions anyway?"
Before you can begin a writing assignment in the humanities, it's important that you
understand why people in the humanities write. If you are a science major, you know that the
purpose of your work is to describe and measure phenomena. You write in order to inform
others about your findings. The larger purpose of your work is to create consensus among
your colleagues. You want to come to agreement in the scientific community as to what can
and cannot be considered reliably true.
In the humanities, however, the purpose of writing is different. Humanities as a field of study
deals with questions for which there are no definitive answers. Consider the questions that
have haunted the humanities for centuries: What is justice? The nature of friendship? The
properties of truth? While scholars in this field certainly hope to address these questions in
ways that are compelling and authoritative, they don't write first and foremost to establish
consensus among their peers. In other words, they do not expect to create in their work a
reliable, scientific truth.
Students of the sciences may well find this frustrating. Writing in the humanities is not about
finding the answer, it's about finding an answer. The humanities concern themselves with the
construction and deconstruction of meaning. They have as their center not the interpretation
of hard evidence, but the interpretation of texts.

Evidence and Methods

Evidence in the humanities is textual. In other words, scholars in this field work most often
with written documents, though films, paintings, etc. are also understood as "texts."
Humanities scholars read texts closely, looking for patterns, examining language, considering
what is not present in the text, as well as what is.
The pattern of discourse in the humanities usually goes like this: a writer makes a claim,
supports that claim with textual evidence, and then discusses the significance of the passage
he has just quoted. This pattern of claim / textual support / discussion is repeated again and
again until the writer feels that her argument has been made. What distinguishes the

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humanities from the sciences and the social sciences is that each claim is supported and
discussed before the next claim is considered. In the sciences and social sciences, discussion
is held off until methods and results have been supported in full.

Structuring the Argument

One of the things that most frustrates students of the sciences and social sciences when they
encounter a humanities writing assignment is that there is no formula for structuring their
papers. In both the sciences and the social sciences, papers must follow a rather rigid format.
In the humanities, however, form is dictated by content. In other words, what you intend to
say will determine how you are going to say it. Figuring out the best of all possible structures
for your argument is among the most difficult challenges a student writing in the humanities
will face.

Preferred style of writing

Every reader, no matter what his profession or academic discipline, prefers prose that is clear,
concise, and coherent.
Understand, however, that writing for a particular discipline means more than simply writing
good sentences. Every discipline has a preferred writing style. In the sciences, for example,
sentences and paragraphs are usually short. Adjectives - except those that are absolutely
necessary - are avoided. The passive voice is regularly employed. First-person pronouns are
suspect. And rhetoric - or the kind of language that one uses to convince others that your
argument is correct - is outlawed.
What works in the sciences, however, generally doesn't work in the humanities. Paragraphs
are longer in the humanities paper. Sentences are longer, too - and more eloquent. They will
juggle long and complex thoughts by using parallel structures. They will resonate with images
and metaphors. They will be active, not passive, in their voices. In short, they will be anything
BUT scientific in their style.
This doesn't mean that a humanities paper can present the reader with a jumble of thoughts
and images. On the contrary, when writing a humanities paper, language and the way it is
used in a paper is nearly as important as that paper's content. You will manipulate language to
emphasize importance, to show the subtle relationships between ideas, and so on.

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