Trigonometry, Trigonometric functions and Equations

By Vladimir Serdarushich
Copyright © 2014 Vladimir Serdarushich

All rights reserved

 CONTENTS

1. Trigonometric Functions
Unit of measurement of angles
Radian, the circular measure
Protractor, an instrument for measuring angles
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion examples
The unit circle or trigonometric circle
Division of the circumference of the unit circle to the characteristic angle
Definitions of trigonometric functions
Definitions of the sine and cosine functions
Definitions of the tangent and cotangent functions
Periodicity of trigonometric functions
Signs of trigonometric functions
The table of signs of trigonometric functions
Trigonometric functions of arcs from 0 to ±2pi
Trigonometric functions of negative arcs or angles
Trigonometric functions of complementary angles
Trigonometric functions of supplementary angles
Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi/2
Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi
Trigonometric functions of arcs whose sum is 2pi
Trigonometric functions values, examples
Trigonometric identities, examples
Trigonometric functions of angles lying on axes

Values of trigonometric functions of arcs pi/6, pi/4 and pi/3

The values of the trigonometric functions of arcs that are multipliers of 30° (pi/6) and 45° (pi/4)
Calculation of values of trigonometric functions
Trigonometric reduction formulas, the reference angles
Calculation of values of trigonometric functions of an arbitrary angle x, examples
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle shown in the unit circle
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle shown in the tabular form
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle, examples
The addition formulas and related identities
The sum and difference formulas for the trigonometric functions
Deriving the addition formulas for sine and cosine functions
The addition formulas for tangent and cotangent functions
Trigonometric functions of double angles, double angle formulas
Application of addition and double angles formulas examples
Trigonometric functions expressed by the half angle
Trigonometric functions of double angles expressed by the tangent function
Trigonometric functions expressed by the tangent of the half angle
Half angle formulas
Trigonometric functions expressed by the cosine of the double angle
Sum to product and product to sum formulas or identities
Sum to product formulas for the sine and the cosine functions
Sum to product formulas for the tangent and the cotangent functions
The product to sum formulas for the sine and cosine functions
Trigonometric identities examples

2. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The graph of the sine function f (x) = sin x
Properties of the sine function
Domain and range of the sine function
Zeroes of the sine function
Extremes, maximum and minimum of the sine function
Parity and periodicity of the sine function
Behavior of the sine function
The graph of the cosine function f (x) = cos x
Properties of the cosine function
Domain and range of the cosine function
Zeroes of the cosine function
Extremes, maximum and minimum of the cosine function
Parity and periodicity of the cosine function
Behavior of the cosine function
The graph of the tangent function f (x) = tan x
Properties of the tangent function
Domain and range of the tangent function
Zeroes of the tangent function
Parity and periodicity of the tangent function
The tangent function behavior and monotony
The vertical asymptotes of the tangent function
The graph of the cotangent function f (x) = cot x
Properties of the cotangent function
Domain and range of the cotangent function
Zeroes of the cotangent function
Parity and periodicity of the cotangent function
The cotangent function behavior and monotony
The vertical asymptotes of the cotangent function
Transformations of trigonometric functions
The graph of the sine function y = a sin (b x + c)
The function y = a sin x
The function y = sin (b x)
The function y = sin (x + c)
The function y = a sin (b x + c)
The graph of the cosine function y = a cos (b x + c)
The graphs of function y = a sin (b x + c) and y = a cos (b x + c), examples

3. Trigonometric Functions and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions graphs and relations
The sine function and the cosine functions graphs and relations
The sine function y = sin x
The cosine function y = cos x
The tangent function and the cotangent functions graphs and relations
The tangent function y = tan x
The cotangent function y = cot x
The cosecant function and the secant functions graphs and relations
The cosecant function y = csc x
The graph of the cosecant function
The secant function y = sec x
The graph of the secant function

Inverse trigonometric functions or arc-functions and their graphs

Inverse functions
The arc-sine function and the arc-cosine function
The arc-sine function y = arc sin x or y = sin x
-1

The arc-cosine function y = arc cos x or y = cos x

-1

The graphs of the arc-sine function and the arc-cosine function

The arc-tangent function and the arc-cotangent function
The arc-tangent function y = arc tan x or y = tan x
-1

The arc-cotangent function y = arc cot x or y = cot x -1

The graph of the arc-tangent function and the arc-cotangent function

The arc-cosecant function and the arc-secant function
The graph of the arc-cosecant and the arc-secant function

4. Trigonometric Equations
Basic trigonometric equations
The trigonometric equation sin x = a
The trigonometric equation cos x = a
The trigonometric equation tan x = a
The trigonometric equation cot x = a
The trigonometric equations, sin (b x + c) = m and cos (b x + c) = m, where -1 < m < 1
The trigonometric equations, tan (b x + c) = m and cot (b x + c) = m, where b, c and m are real numbers
The trigonometric equation sin (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example
The trigonometric equation cos (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example
The trigonometric equation tan (b x + c) = m, example
The trigonometric equation cot (b x + c) = m, example
Trigonometric equations of quadratic form
Trigonometric equations of the type, a cos x + b sin x = c
Introducing an auxiliary angle method
Introducing an auxiliary angle method example
Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2
Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2, example
Trigonometric equations that can be written as f · g = 0
Homogeneous trigonometric equations in sin x and cos x
Homogeneous equations of first degree, a sin x + b cos x = 0

Homogeneous equations of second degree, a sin x + b sin x cos x + c cos x = 0

2 2

The basic strategy for solving trigonometric equations

Trigonometric equations examples

1. Trigonometric Functions
Unit of measurement of angles
Radian, the circular measure
Protractor, an instrument for measuring angles
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion examples
The unit circle or trigonometric circle
Division of the circumference of the unit circle to the characteristic angle
Definitions of trigonometric functions

Definitions of the sine and cosine functions

Definitions of the tangent and cotangent functions
Periodicity of trigonometric functions
Signs of trigonometric functions
The table of signs of trigonometric functions
Unit of measurement of angles
Radian, the circular measure
The relation between a central angle alpha (the angle between two radii) and the corresponding arc l in the circle of
radius r is shown by the proportion,
It shows that the central angle alpha compared to the round angle of 360 (called perigon) is in the same relation as
o o

the corresponding arc l compared to the circumference 2rpi. Therefore,

where the ratio l /r we call the circular measure, denoted alpha , i.e.,
rad

thus,

The central angle subtended by the arc l equals in length to the radius, l = r
we call it radian (the abbreviation for radian is rad).
Thus, the angle alpha = 1 equals in radians,
o

or arc1 = 0.01745329. Arc is abbreviation from Latin arcus, (pi = 3.1415926535...).

o

Protractor, an instrument for measuring angles

Mentioned relations between units of measurement of an angle and arc clearly shows the protractor shown in the
below figure marked with radial lines indicating degrees, radians and rarely used gradians (the angle of an entire
circle or round angle is 400 gradians).
A right angle equals 100 grad (gradians).
The hundredth part of a right angle is 1 grad, and one 100th part of 1grad is centesimal arc minute 1 , and one 100th
g c

part of centesimal arc minute is centesimal arc second 1 , therefore

cc

Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion examples

Example: Convert 67 18 45 to radians.
o ’ ”

Solution: The given angle we write in the expanded notation and calculate its decimal equivalent,
and use the formula to convert degrees to radians

Using a scientific calculator, the given conversion can be performed almost direct.
Before a calculation choose right angular measurement (DEG, RAD, GRAD) by pressing DRG key, then
input, 67.1845 INV -->DEG 67.3125 o

Because a calculator must use degrees divided into its decimal part one should press -->DEG (or -->DD) to get
decimal degrees. Then press INV DRG--> to get radians, 1.174824753 . rad

Example: Convert 2.785 to degrees, minutes and seconds

rad

Solution: Using formula,

The same result one obtains with a calculator through the procedure, press DRG key to set RAD measurement, then
input 2.785 INV DRG--> 177.2986066 grad = 177 29 86 , press again INV DRG--> 159.5687459° obtained are
g c cc

decimal degrees (DEG), and to convert to degrees/minutes/seconds press INV -->DMS to get 159 34 7.48”.
o ’

Example: Find the length of the arc l that subtends the central angle alpha = 123 38 27” in the circle of radius r =
o ’

15 cm.
Solution: First express the angle alpha in decimal degrees,
The unit circle or trigonometric circle
A circle of radius r = 1, with the center at the origin O (0, 0) of a coordinate system, we call the unit or trigonometric
circle, see the figure below.

The arc of the unit circle that describes a point traveling anticlockwise (by convention, clockwise is taken to be
negative direction) from the initial position P (1, 0) on the x-axis, along the circumference, to the terminal position P
1

equals the angular measure/distance x = alpha , in radians.

rad

An angle is in standard position if its initial side lies along the positive x-axis.
If we take the positive direction of the x-axis as the beginning of a measurement of an angle (i.e., alpha = 0 , both
rad

sides of an angle lie on the x-axis), and the unit point P as the initial point of measuring the arc, then the terminal
1

side of an angle, which passes through the terminal point P of the arc, rotating around the origin (in positive or
negative direction) describes different angles, and the terminal point P corresponding arcs,

It means that every arc x ends in the same point P in which ends the corresponding arc alpha.
Thus, at any point P on the circumference of the unit circle end infinite arcs

which differ by the multiplier 2pi, and any number x associates only one point P.
Division of the circumference of the unit circle to the characteristic angles
There is a common division of the circumference of the unit circle to the characteristic angles or the corresponding
arcs which are the multipliers of the angles, 30 (pi/ 6) and 45 (pi/ 4).
o o

We can say that a unit circle is at the same time the numerical circle.
The numerical circle shown in the above figure is formed by winding the positive part of number line, with the unit
that equals the radius, around the unit circle in the anticlockwise direction and its negative part in clockwise
direction.
Therefore, the terms angle, arc and number in the trigonometric definitions and expressions are mutually
interchangeable.
Example: In which quadrant lies second or the terminal side of the angle x = 1280°.
Solution: Dividing the given angle by 360° we calculate the number of rotations, or round angles, described by
terminal side of the angle x, and the remaining angle alpha° position of which we want to find.
since x = alpha° + k · 360° then k = 3 and alpha = 200° therefore, terminal side of the angle x lies in the third
quadrant.
Example: In which quadrant lies the endpoint of the arc x = - 47pi/3 of a unit circle.
Solution: Given arc

can be expanded to
Thus, the endpoint of the arc x moved around a unit circle in the clockwise (negative) direction 7 times and
described additional arc alpha = - (5/3)pi , so its endpoint P lies in the first quadrant.
rad

Definitions of trigonometric functions

Definitions of the sine and cosine functions
Let x be an arc of the unit circle measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. It is at the same time the circular
measure of the subtended central angle alpha as is shown in the below figure.
In accordance with the definitions of trigonometric functions in a right-angled triangle,
- The sine of an angle alpha [sin (alpha)] in a right triangle is the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the
hypotenuse.
- The cosine of an angle alpha (cos (alpha)) in a right triangle is the ratio of the side adjacent to it to the hypotenuse.
Thus, from the right triangle OP′, follows
sin x = PP′, The sine of arc x is the ordinate of the arc endpoint.
cos x = OP′, The cosine of arc x is the abscissa of the arc endpoint.
Definitions of the tangent and cotangent functions
- The tangent of an angle alpha (tan (alpha)) in a right triangle is the ratio of the lengths of the opposite to the
adjacent side.
- The cotangent is defined as reciprocal of the tangent, thus
From the similarity of the triangles OP′P and OP S ,
1 1

tan x = P S , The tangent of an arc x is the ordinate of intersection of the second or terminal side (or its extension) of
1 1

the given angle and the tangent line x = 1.

From the similarity of the triangles, OP′P and OP S , 2 2

cot x = P S , The cotangent of an arc x is the abscissa of intersection of the second or terminal side (or its
2 2

extension) of the given angle and the tangent y = 1.

It is obvious from the definitions that the tangent function is not defined for arguments x for which cos x = 0, as well
as the cotangent function is not defined for the arguments for which sin x = 0.
Periodicity of trigonometric functions
After the argument (arc) x passes through all real values from the interval 0 < x < 2pi or after the terminal side of an
angle turned round the origin for an entire circle, trigonometric or circular functions will repeat their initial values.
As the terminal point P of an arc continue rotation around a unit circle in the positive direction passing over the
initial point P , it takes next values from the interval 2pi < x < 4pi, then the values from the interval 4pi < x < 6pi and
1

so on.
On the same way we can examine the rotation of the terminal point P of an arc x in the negative (clockwise)
direction, when it will pass through the values from the intervals, 0 to -2pi, from -2p to -4pi, and so on.
It follows that the argument x can take any value,

that is, every real value between -oo and +oo.

Particularly, for k = 0, i.e., during the first rotation the value of argument is

While the arc endpoint continues rounding over the starting point the trigonometric functions will, in every interval
of length

take the same values in the same order they took in the first interval [0, 2pi].
Functions which have the characteristic to take the same values while their argument changes for all integral
multiples of a constant interval (or a constant increases in amount called increment) we call periodic functions, and
this constant interval we call period.
Hence, we say that trigonometric functions are periodic functions of x, so that

while functions,

The periodicity of trigonometric functions show the identities,

and for tangent and cotangent functions

Signs of trigonometric functions
Quadrant I - Values of trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent of any arc from the first quadrant
are all positive as positive are the coordinates of the points, P, S and S that define their values.
1 2

Quadrant II - For arcs from the second quadrant points, P and S both have negative abscissas (see the above figure),
2

so the cosine and cotangent are negative. The ordinate of the terminal point P is positive so that the sine is positive
while the ordinate of the point S is negative, thus the tangent is negative.
1
Quadrant III - As the abscissas and the ordinates of the terminal points P of arcs from the third quadrant (see the
above figure) are negative it follows that cosine and sine functions of these arcs are negative. The ordinates of the
points S and the abscissas of the points S that belong to the arcs from the third quadrant are positive. Thus, the
1 2

tangent and cotangent of these arcs are positive.

Quadrant IV - The functions, sine, tangent and cotangent of the arcs from the fourth quadrant are negative as are the
coordinates of the points, P, S and S , that belong to them. Only the cosine function of arcs from the fourth quadrant
1 2

is positive as are the abscissas of points P that belong to them (see the above figure).

Example: To which quadrant belongs the endpoint of an arc alpha if

Solution: The below figure shows that the ordinate of the endpoint P of an arc from the third quadrant is negative,
so sin (alpha) < 0 while the abscissa of the point (in which the extension of the terminal side of the angle alpha
intersects the tangent y = 1) is positive, i.e., cot (alpha) > 0.

That is in accordance with the signs in the above table.

Trigonometric functions of arcs from 0 to ±2pi
Trigonometric functions of negative arcs or angles
Trigonometric functions of complementary angles
Trigonometric functions of supplementary angles
Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi/2
Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi
Trigonometric functions of arcs whose sum is 2pi
Trigonometric functions values, examples
Trigonometric identities, examples
Trigonometric functions of angles lying on axes

Trigonometric functions of negative arcs or angles

We say that arcs x and x′ are opposite if, x + x′ = 0 or x′ = -x.

Comparing the corresponding sides of the congruent right-angled triangles in the above figure,
OP P and OP P′, OS S and OS S ′, OS S and OS S ′,
x x x 1 x 1 y 2 y 2

follows that we can express trigonometric functions of a negative arc (-x) by corresponding function of opposite arc
x, that is
Example: Given trigonometric functions of negative angle, arc or number should be expressed by the same
functions of the positive angle, arc or number.
a) sin (-200 ),
o
b) cos (-14pi/3), c) tan (-11), d) cot (-750 ).
o

Solution:
Trigonometric functions of complementary angles
Two angles, x and pi/2 - x which form the right angle, are said to be complementary.
Thus, comparing the corresponding sides of the congruent right-angled triangles in the below figure,
OPxP and OPx′P′, OSxS and OSyS ′, OSyS and OSxS ′
1 2 2 1
Example: The trigonometric functions of the given angle or arc should be expressed by corresponding function of
the complementary angle.
a) sin 30 ,
o
b) cos (pi/2 - pi/3), c) tan 1, d) cot 530 .
o

Solution:

Example: Simplify the expression

Solution:
Trigonometric functions of supplementary angles
Two angles, x and pi - x which when added, form a straight angle, are said to be supplementary.
Comparing the corresponding sides of the congruent right-angled triangles in the below figure,

Example: Trigonometric functions of a given arc, angle or number should be expressed by the corresponding
function of the supplementary angle,
Solution:

Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi/2

Comparing the corresponding sides of the congruent right-angled triangles, in the below figure, we get the relations
of trigonometric functions of an arc x and the arc pi/2 + x,
Example: Trigonometric functions of a given arc, angle or number should be expressed by the corresponding
function of angle which differ from the given for 90 (pi/2),
o
Solution:

Trigonometric functions of arcs that differ on pi

Comparing the corresponding sides of the congruent right-angled triangles, in the below figure, we get the relations
of trigonometric functions of an arc x and the arc pi + x,
Example: Trigonometric functions of a given arc, angle or number should be expressed by the corresponding
function of angle which differ from the given for 180 (pi),
o
Solution:

Example: Simplify expression

Solution:
Trigonometric functions of arcs whose sum is 2pi
The below figure shows relations between sides of the congruent right-angled triangles as follows,

Trigonometric functions values, examples

Trigonometric identities, examples
Example: Trigonometric functions of a given arc, angle or number should be expressed by the corresponding
function of angle which when added with a given arc make 360 (2pi).
o

Solution:

Example: Prove that

Solution:

Example: Calculate,
Solution:

Example: Calculate,

Solution:
Example: Prove the identity,

Solution: Since
Example: Prove the identity,

Solution:
Trigonometric functions of angles lying on axes
Values of trigonometric functions of characteristic arcs, 0, pi/2, 3pi/2 and 2pi follow directly from the definitions.

Thus, for functions sine and cosine from the above figure we read the coordinates of the arc terminal point P that is,
for the sine function we read the ordinate while for the cosine function the abscissa of the terminal point.
Thus,

Point S whose ordinate determines the value of the function tangent, for the arcs, 0, pi and 2pi, coincide with the
1

initial point P of the arc, i.e., lies on the x-axis, see the below figure.
1
Thus,

their terminal side or its extension lies on the y-axis, that is parallel with tangent x = 1. There is no intersection S and
1

we say that for these arcs the function tangent is undefined.

However, if we follow the intersection point S while the arc increases from 0 to pi/2 we see that it moves away the
1

x-axis and its ordinate tan (alpha ) tends to infinity (+ oo) which can be written as,
1

If we continue to follow changes of the values of the function tangent, i.e., changes of the ordinates of the
intersection S ′ while the arc increases from pi/2 to pi that is, while the terminal side of the angle alpha or its
1 2

extension continue rotates in the positive direction, we see that point S ′ moves toward the x-axis and at the same
1

time its ordinate tan (alpha ) increases from - oo to 0.

2

Thus we can write,

Examining the same way it follows that,

The intersection point S , whose abscissas determine the values of the function cotangent, coincide with the point P
2 pi/2

for the arcs pi/2 and 3pi/2 on the y-axis, so

while for arcs, 0 (2pi) and pi, the terminal side of the corresponding central angle, or its extension, lies on the x-axis
parallel with the tangent y = 1, so there is no intersection point.
We say that the function cotangent is undefined for those arcs.

To determine bounds of the values that the function cotangent takes while the terminal point of an arc rounds the
unit circle in the positive direction passing through mentioned characteristic values, 0 (2pi) and pi, we should follow
the intersection point S on the tangent y = 1, i.e., the changes of its abscissas cot (alpha), see the above figure. Thus,
2
Values of trigonometric functions of arcs pi/6, pi/4 and pi/3
The values of the trigonometric functions of arcs that are multipliers of 30° (pi/6) and 45° (pi/4)
Calculation of values of trigonometric functions
Trigonometric reduction formulas, the reference angles
Calculation of values of trigonometric functions of an arbitrary angle x, examples
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle shown in the unit circle
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle shown in the tabular form
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle, examples
Values of trigonometric functions of arcs pi/6, pi/4 and pi/3
These arcs are, one twelfth, one eighth and one sixth of the circumference 2pi of the unit circle so the coordinates of
terminal points of the arcs are the elements of the equilateral triangle with the side a = 1 (Fig. a and c) and the sides
of the square with diagonal d = 1, (Fig. b).
The values of the trigonometric functions of arcs that are multipliers of 30° (pi/6) and 45° (pi/4)
Calculation of values of trigonometric functions
Trigonometric reduction formulas, the reference angles
Values of trigonometric functions, of any angle greater than 90° (pi/2) can be expressed by the corresponding value
of the function of an angle from the first quadrant.
The figures a, b and c below, show these relations for the angles x whose terminal side falls in the second, third or
fourth quadrant.
Angles x whose terminal side falls in the second quadrant we denote as,
Angles x whose terminal side falls in the third quadrant we denote as,
Angles x whose terminal side falls in the fourth quadrant we denote as
If a given arc x is greater than 2pi then, before calculating values of functions sine and cosine, we should divide it by
2pi, while for functions tangent and cotangent by pi, to determine integral multiplier k and reminder alpha therefore,

and for functions, tangent and cotangent

These properties of trigonometric functions are included in the reduction formulas that give the value of any angle x
greater than 90° (pi/2) in terms of same function of an acute angle alpha.
We calculate values of trigonometric functions of an arbitrary angle x by using its reference angle alpha.
If x is an angle in standard position, then its reference angle is given by the acute angle x which is enclosed between
the terminal side of the x and the x-axis.

Calculation of values of trigonometric functions of an arbitrary angle x, examples

Example: Calculate sin 1110 . o

Solution: To use the expression

we should divide given angle by 360 to get an integer multiple k and remaining angle alpha, thus
o

therefore,
Example: Calculate

Solution:

As the terminal side of the angle 5pi/4 lies in the third quadrant we use

Example: Calculate tan 817 35′ 42″.

o

Solution: According to x = alpha + k · 180 we divide the given angle x by 180 to determine k and alpha, so
o o
as it is second-quadrant angle we use

When we use a scientific calculator to find values for trigonometric functions, a given angle should be entered as
decimal degree in DEG mode, so input
82.2418 INV ->DEG => 82.405 TAN => 7.49964367.
o

Example: Calculate cot 27pi/7.

Solution: Decompose the angle to

since, for a second-quadrant angle holds

When we use calculator we set it in the RAD mode using DRG key, then enter,
INV pi / 7 = 0.44879895 TAN 0.481574618 1 / x => 2.076521397.

That is, the value of the function cotangent we calculate as the reciprocal value of the function tangent, as cot x =
1/tan x.

Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle

Using the Pythagorean Theorem for the right triangle in the figure we get the fundamental trigonometric identity
sin x + cos x = 1
2 2

which, because of periodicity of the trigonometric functions, holds for an arbitrary angle

From this identity and the definitions of the functions, tangent and cotangent
we can derive twelve formulas so that each function is expressed through another three. Thus,

By plugging (1) and (2) in,

Dividing the basic identity by cos x,
2

Dividing the basic identity by sin x,

2
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle in the unit circle
Relations between the trigonometric functions of the same angle, expressed by absolute value, are included in the
definitions of the functions in right triangles shown in Figs. a, b, c and d.
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle shown in the tabular form
Basic relationships between trigonometric functions of the same angle, examples
Example: Find values of other trigonometric functions of an angle alpha, if given sin (alpha) = - 4/5 and 270 <
o

alpha < 360 .

o

Solution: Since alpha is a fourth-quadrant angle, then

Example: Find the value of

Solution: Dividing the numerator and the denominator by cos x,

2
Example: Prove the identity

Solution:
Example: Given sin x + cos x = a, find sin x + cos x.
4 4

Solution: Since sin x + cos x = 1 then,

2 2

As given sin x + cos x = a then,

The addition formulas and related identities
The sum and difference formulas for the trigonometric functions
Deriving the addition formulas for sine and cosine functions
The addition formulas for tangent and cotangent functions
Trigonometric functions of double angles, double angle formulas
Application of addition and double angles formulas examples
Trigonometric functions expressed by the half angle
Trigonometric functions of double angles expressed by the tangent function
Trigonometric functions expressed by the tangent of the half angle
Half angle formulas

Trigonometric functions expressed by the cosine of the double angle

Sum to product and product to sum formulas or identities
Sum to product formulas for the sine and the cosine functions
Sum to product formulas for the tangent and the cotangent functions
The product to sum formulas for the sine and cosine functions
Trigonometric identities examples
The sum and difference formulas for the trigonometric functions
Trigonometric functions of the sum or difference of two angles in terms of separate functions of the angles.
Deriving the addition formulas for sine and cosine functions
The coordinates of the terminal point
on the unit circle shown on the above figure, we can write

From the right triangles, OBP, CBP and OAB it follows that, in triangle

and after substituting the obtained values for, u, v, m and n into (1) and (2)

By replacing beta with -beta in the above identities, we get

then
The addition formulas for tangent and cotangent functions
The addition formulas for the tangent and cotangent functions we derive from the definitions, thus

and by dividing the numerator and denominator by

Using the relation

and after dividing the numerator and denominator by sin (alpha) · sin (beta),
By replacing beta with -beta in the above identities, and substituting
tan (-beta) = - tan (beta) and cot (-beta) = - cot (beta), we get

Trigonometric functions of double angles, double angle formulas

By substituting beta with alpha in the sum formulas,

thus for example,

so we get,
The double angle formula for the cosine function can be expressed by sine or cosine function using the identity sin 2

(alpha) + cos (alpha) = 1,

2

Application of addition and double angles formulas examples

Example: Using known values,

evaluate sin 105 .

o

Solution: Applying the sum formula for the sine function,

Example: Use, tan 45 = 1 and tan 60 = 3 , to prove that tan 15° = 2 - 3 .
o o 1/2 1/2

Solution: Since
Example: Prove the identity

Solution: Using the addition formula

Example: Verify the identity

Solution: We divide the numerator and denominator on the left side by sin alpha and to the right
side we use the cotangent formula for the difference of two angles, thus
Example: Express sin 3x in terms of sin x.
Solution: Using the addition formula and the double angle formula for the sine function,

Example: Express tan 3x in terms of tan x.

Solution: Using the addition formula and the double angle formula for the tangent function,
Example: Prove the identity

Solution:
Example: Prove the identity

Solution:
Trigonometric functions expressed by the half angle
Substituting alpha by alpha/2 in the double angle formulas we obtain trigonometric functions expressed by the half
angle,
and

Trigonometric functions of double angles expressed by the tangent function

The double angle formulas can be expressed in terms of a single function, so using the identity

and dividing the numerator and denominator by cos (alpha) we get

2
dividing the right side by cos (alpha) we get
2

Trigonometric functions expressed by the tangent of the half angle

Replacing alpha by alpha/2 in the above identities, we get
Half angle formulas
Using the identities in which trigonometric functions are expressed by the half angle,

and applying the definitions of the functions, tangent and cotangent

Trigonometric functions expressed by the cosine of the double angle
Replacing alpha/2 by alpha in the above identities, we get

Sum to product and product to sum formulas or identities

Sum to product formulas for the sine and the cosine functions
Adding the sum and difference formulas for the sine function,

and by subtracting the second from the first identity,

Then, substitute

By adding and subtracting these equalities we get

therefore,

Using the same procedure for the cosine function,

and by subtracting the second from the first identity,

substitute,
Sum to product formulas for the tangent and the cotangent functions
From the definition of the function tangent,

and for the function cotangent

Using the same method,

The product to sum formulas for the sine and cosine functions
By adding and subtracting addition formulas derived are following product to sum formulas,
Trigonometric identities examples
Example: Express the given difference sin 61 - sin 59 as a product.
o o

Solution: Since

Example: Prove the identity

Solution: Applying the sum formula to the last two terms on the left side of the identity we get,
Example: Prove the identity

Solution: Using the formula for the sum of the tangent

Example: Prove the identity

Solution:
Example: If

Solution: Use formula

solve the quadratic equation by t
Example: Prove that

Solution: Replace
and use the sum to product formula,
2. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
The graph of the sine function f (x) = sin x
Properties of the sine function
Domain and range of the sine function
Zeroes of the sine function
Extremes, maximum and minimum of the sine function
Parity and periodicity of the sine function
Behavior of the sine function
The graph of the cosine function f (x) = cos x
Properties of the cosine function
Domain and range of the cosine function
Zeroes of the cosine function
Extremes, maximum and minimum of the cosine function
Parity and periodicity of the cosine function
Behavior of the cosine function
The graph of the tangent function f (x) = tan x
Properties of the tangent function
Domain and range of the tangent function
Zeroes of the tangent function
Parity and periodicity of the tangent function
The tangent function behavior and monotony
The vertical asymptotes of the tangent function
The graph of the cotangent function f (x) = cot x
Properties of the cotangent function
Domain and range of the cotangent function
Zeroes of the cotangent function
Parity and periodicity of the cotangent function
The cotangent function behavior and monotony
The vertical asymptotes of the cotangent function
Graphs of trigonometric functions
Visual presentation of changes and behavior of each trigonometric function shows us its graph in the coordinate
plane xOy.
A graph of a function is formed by points P (x, f (x)), where the abscissas x belong to the domain and the calculated
values of the function f (x) as the ordinates, which are the corresponding values from the range.
The graph of the sine function f (x) = sin x
The unit circle is divided to arbitrary number of equal parts, for example 12 as on the below figure, which
then measure 2pi/12 = pi/6 each.
On the same way starting from the origin divided is its circumference 2pi to the same number of equal parts on the
x-axis.
That way, an arc x becomes the abscissa of a point in a coordinate system. By associating the ordinates of the ending
points of the arcs x of the unit circle to the corresponding abscissas x obtained are the points P (x, sin x) of the curve
named sine curve or sinusoid.
Properties of the sine function
Domain and range of the sine function
From the graph in the below figure we see that the sine function is defined for all real numbers x that is, the domain
of the function D = R.
f

The graph of the sine function is bounded between lines y = -1 and y = 1. Therefore, the function takes all values
from the closed interval [-1, 1], written range ( f ) or f (D) = [-1, 1].
Zeroes of the sine function
The points of intersection of a function with the x-axis we obtain by solving equation f (x) = 0,

that is, the x-intercepts are,

as shows the above diagram.

Extremes, maximum and minimum of the sine function

The sine function reaches its maximum value 1 at the points whose abscissas are the solutions of the equation,

and its minimal value -1 at the points whose abscissas satisfy the equation

Parity and periodicity of the sine function

Parity - A function that change sign but not absolute value when the sign of the independent variable is changed is
odd function, that is if
f (-x) = - f (x).
Such a function is symmetrical about the origin, as shows the figure above.
Let examine parity of the sine function f (x) = sin x,
therefore, the sine is odd function.

The periodicity of the sine function

A function f (x) that repeats its value for all integral multiples of a constant number p added to the independent
variable is called periodic function with period p. That is, if

For the sine function holds the identity

that means that all positive and negative multiples of 2pi are periods of the sine function but the least (principal)
period P = 2pi.

Behavior of the sine function

We analyze behavior of a function by moving from left to right, i.e., in the direction of the positive x-axis examining
the following characteristics,
- intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing,
- maximums and minimums, and
- roots or zero function values.
Since trigonometric functions are periodic, it is enough to examine its behavior inside of one period.
Therefore, for the sine function we examine the interval 0 < x < 2pi.
The graph of the sine function shows,
- when the arc x increases from 0 to pi/2 the function sin x increases from 0 to 1,
- when the arc x increases from pi/2 to pi the function sin x decreases from 1 to 0,
- when the arc x increases from pi to 3pi/2 the function sin x decreases from 0 to -1,
- when the arc x increases from 3pi/2 to 2pi the function sin x increases from -1 to 0.
Behavior of a function can also be shown in the tabular form,

The graph of the cosine function f (x) = cos x

To draw the graph of the cosine function divide the unit circle and x-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system the same
way as when drawing the sine function.
The abscissas of the ending points of arcs x of the unit circle, are now the ordinates of the corresponding points P (x,
cos x) of the graph, as shown in the figure below.
Since cos x = sin (x + pi/2) that is, the cosine of an arc x equals the sine of the same arc increased by pi/2.
Therefore, graph of the cosine function correspond to the graph of the sine function translated in the negative
direction of the x-axis by pi/2.
Thus for example,

as show the above graph and the unit circle.

Properties of the cosine function
- Domain of the cosine function,

- Range of the cosine function

- Zeroes of the cosine function,

- Abscissas of maximums and minimums of the cosine function,

- Parity and periodicity, the cosine is even function since

The identity

shows that the cosine is periodic function with the period P = 2pi.

Behavior of the cosine function

The table shows behavior of the cosine function while the arc x of the unit circle increases passing through all the
values from the period.
The graph of the tangent function f (x) = tan x
By associating the ordinates of the points that according to definition equals the tangent of an arc in the unit circle,
to corresponding arc x in a coordinate system obtained are points P (x, tan x) of the graph of the tangent function.
Properties of the tangent function
- Domain and range of the tangent function
From the definition of the tangent, tan x = sin x/cos x, follows that all real numbers belong to the domain of the
tangent function except the zeroes of the cosine function, thus

As shows the graph in the above figure, tangent function takes all real values from

while its argument x passes through an interval of the length pi, therefore the range

Zeroes of the tangent function

The zeroes of the tangent are determined by the zeroes of the sine function in the numerator, so
Parity and periodicity of the tangent function
The tangent is odd function sinc

It is obvious from the graph that the tangent is periodic function with the period p = pi. Thus, for every arc x from
the domain

The tangent function behavior and monotony

Monotonicity means, a function consistently increasing or decreasing in value.
The tangent is increasing function in every interval between any of the two successive vertical asymptotes that is,

The vertical asymptotes of tangent function

The equations of the vertical asymptotes are,

The graph of the cotangent function f (x) = cot x

By associating the values of the cotangent of arcs of the unit circle, to corresponding arcs in a coordinate system
obtained are points P (x, cot x) of the graph of the cotangent function.
The graph of the cotangent function in the below figure is drawn using the relation between tangent and cotangent
which states,
Properties of the cotangent function
Domain and range of the cotangent function
- Domain
From the definition, cot x = cos x/sin x, follows that all real numbers x, as input values, associate exactly one
functional value as output, except the zeroes of the sine function from the denominator, thus

- Range

Zeroes of the cotangent function

The zeroes of the cotangent are determined by the zeroes of the cosine function from the numerator, thus

Parity and periodicity of the cotangent function

The cotangent is an odd function since

The cotangent is periodic function with the period p = pi since for every arc x from the domain

The cotangent function behavior and monotony

The cotangent is decreasing function in every interval between any of the two successive vertical asymptotes that is,

The vertical asymptotes of cotangent function

The vertical asymptotes are,
Transformations of trigonometric functions
The graph of the sine function y = a sin (b x + c)
The function y = a sin x
The function y = sin (b x)
The function y = sin (x + c)
The function y = a sin (b x + c)
The graph of the cosine function y = a cos (b x + c)
The graphs of function y = a sin (b x + c) and y = a cos (b x + c), examples
The graph of the sine function y = a sin (b x + c)
The trigonometric functions of this form have wide application in physics electricity and engineering where are used
in analyzing and modeling behavior of different situations in which things follow a repeating pattern.
Therefore, we need to know how the parameters a, b and c affect the form of the source sine function y = sin x.
The function y = a sin x
The graph of the function a sin x is obtained by multiplying each function value sin x by the constant a.
That means, the ordinates of each point of the function sin x should be a times,
- increased if a > 0
- decreased if 0 < a < 1,
while if a negative, each point of the graph should at the same time be flipped around x-axis.
The parameter a is called amplitude.

The function y = sin (b x)

The parameter b indicates the number of times function repeats itself within the period of 2pi. Since there are b
periods of the given function in 2pi, then the length of its period

The principal period P should satisfy identity for the periodic functions, thus
For example, least or principal period of the function sin 2x,

What means, its graph repeats twice within the period of 2pi.
While the function

has a half of its period within the interval of 2pi, as its principal period

as shows the below figure.

The function y = sin (x + c)

The parameter c represents the value of translation of the sin x function in the direction of the x-axis that is
For example, the graph of the function

is obtained by translating the sin x function horizontally to the right by x = pi/6, as shows the graph below.

The function y = a sin (b x + c)

The graph of the sin x function repeat once while its argument passes through all the values of an interval

Therefore, the function

will repeat once while its argument (bx + c) passes through all the values from 0 to 2pi, that is

thus,

That means, the given function will start its period at

Hence, the least or principal period of the function

For example the function

will repeat once in the interval

Thus, given function will repeat once in each interval of the length pi, or P = pi, while the initial point of the given
interval is at x = - pi/6, as is shown in the figure below.

The graph of the cosine function y = a cos (b x + c)

The parameters a, b and c have the same influence on the graph of the function cos x as to the function sin x, since
we already know that the cosine function is translated sine function and vice versa
Thus, for example the function
repeats once in the interval

Therefore, the function repeats itself at every interval of the length 4pi or the period P = 4pi and the initial point of
the given interval at x = pi/2.
At the same time it means that the graph of the given function can be obtained translating the function

The graphs of function y = a sin (b x + c) and y = a cos (b x + c), examples

Example: Examine the properties, draw the graph and analyze behavior of the function
Solution: Comparing with

The influences of the given parameters to the shape and the position of the graph in a coordinate system we can
examine and analyze applying the method,
- since a < 0 the graph of the function, relating to the graph of the source function y = sin x, is flipped around the x-
axis and bounded by lines y = - 2 and y = 2.
- The least or principal period of the function

therefore, the function repeats once within the interval 3pi.

- Horizontal translation of the graph

what means that the given period will have its initial point at

That is, the function will repeat itself once within the interval

- Zeroes of the function y = a sin (b x + c) we calculate from

- The abscissas of extremes (maximums and minimums) of the given function (or y = a sin (b x + c)) we calculate
from

According to the properties drown is the graph of the function.

Behavior of the function within the principal period,

Example: Examine the properties, draw the graph and analyze behavior of the function

Solution: Comparing with y = a cos (b x + c) it follows that, a = 1, b = 3/2 and c = pi/2.

The given parameters determine the properties,
- since a = 1, the graph of the function is bounded between y = -1 and y = 1,
- the principal period

- the translation
thus the interval

- The zeroes of the function y = a cos (b x + c) we calculate using the formula

- the abscissas of the extremes of the function y = a cos (b x + c) we calculate using the formula
The behavior of the function within the principal period,
3. Trigonometric Functions and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions graphs and relations
The sine function and the cosine functions graphs and relations
The sine function y = sin x
The cosine function y = cos x
The tangent function and the cotangent functions graphs and relations
The tangent function y = tan x
The cotangent function y = cot x
The cosecant function and the secant functions graphs and relations
The cosecant function y = csc x
The graph of the cosecant function
The secant function y = sec x
The graph of the secant function

Inverse trigonometric functions or arc-functions and their graphs

Inverse functions
The arc-sine function and the arc-cosine function
The arc-sine function y = arc sin x or y = sin x
-1

The arc-cosine function y = arc cos x or y = cos x-1

The graphs of the arc-sine function and the arc-cosine function

The arc-tangent function and the arc-cotangent function
The arc-tangent function y = arc tan x or y = tan x
-1

The arc-cotangent function y = arc cot x or y = cot x -1

The graph of the arc-tangent function and the arc-cotangent function

The arc-cosecant function and the arc-secant function
The graph of the arc-cosecant and the arc-secant function
Trigonometric functions graphs and relations
Trigonometric (cyclometric) functions are defined as the ratios of the sides of a right triangle containing the angle
equal to the argument of the function in radians.
Or more generally, for real arguments, trigonometric functions are defined in terms of the coordinates of the
terminal point Q of the arc (or angle) of the unit circle with the initial point at P(1, 0).
The sine function and the cosine functions graphs and relations
The sine function y = sin x
The sine function is the y-coordinate of the terminal point of the arc x of the unit circle.
The graph of the sine function is the sine curve or sinusoid.

In a right-angled triangle the sine function is equal to the ratio of the length of the side opposite the given angle to
the length of the hypotenuse.
The cosine function y = cos x
The cosine function is the x-coordinate of the terminal point of the arc x of the unit circle.
The graph of the cosine function is the cosine curve or cosinusoid.

In a right-angled triangle the cosine function is equal to the ratio of the length of the side adjacent the given angle to
the length of the hypotenuse.

The tangent function and the cotangent functions graphs and relations
The tangent function y = tan x
The tangent function is the ratio of the y-coordinate to the x-coordinate of the terminal point of the arc x of the unit
circle, or it is the ratio of the sine function to the cosine function.
In a right-angled triangle the tangent function is equal to the ratio of the length of the side opposite the given angle
to that of the adjacent side.

The cotangent function y = cot x

The cotangent function y = cot x is the reciprocal of the tangent function, or it is the ratio of the cosine function to
the sine function.
In a right-angled triangle the cotangent function is equal to the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to the given
angle to that of the side opposite it.

The cosecant function and the secant functions graphs and relations
The cosecant function y = csc x
The cosecant function is the reciprocal of the sine function.
The graph of the cosecant function
In a right-angled triangle the cosecant function is equal to the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to that of the side
opposite to the given angle.

The secant function y = sec x

The secant function is the reciprocal of the cosine function.
The graph of the secant function
Inverse trigonometric functions or arc-functions and their graphs
Inverse functions
The inverse function, usually written f , is the function whose domain and the range are respectively the range and
-1

domain of a given function f, that is

f (x) = y if and only if ƒ (y) = x.
-1

Thus, the composition of the inverse function and the given function returns x, which is called the identity function,
i.e.,
f [ƒ(x)] = x and ƒ [f (x)] = x.
-1 -1

The inverse of a function undoes the procedure (or function) of the given function.
A pair of inverse functions is in inverse relation.

Example: If given
The arc-sine function and the arc-cosine function
The arc-sine function y = arc sin x or y = sin x
-1

The arc-sine function is the inverse of the sine function, so that its value for any argument is an arc (angle) whose
sine equals the given argument.
That is, y = sin x if and only if x = sin y.
-1

For example,

Thus, the arc-sine function is defined for arguments between -1 and 1, and its principal values are by convention
taken to be those between -pi/2 and pi/2.

The arc-cosine function y = arc cos x or y = cos x -1

The arc-cosine function is the inverse of the cosine function, so that its value for any argument is an arc (angle)
whose cosine equals the given argument.
That is, y = cos x if and only if x = cos y.
-1

For example,

Therefore, the arc-cosine function is defined for arguments between -1 and 1, and its principal values are by
convention taken to be those between 0 and pi.

The graph of the arc-sine function

The graph of the arc-cosine function
The arc-tangent function and the arc-cotangent function
The arc-tangent function y = arc tan x or y = tan x
-1

The arc-tangent function is the inverse of the tangent function, so that its value for any argument is an arc (angle)
whose tangent equals the given argument.
That is, y = tan x if and only if x = tan y.
-1

For example,

Thus, the arc-tangent function is defined for all real arguments, and its principal values are by convention taken to
be those strictly between -pi/2 and pi/2.
The arc-cotangent function y = arc cot x or y = cot x
-1

The arc-cotangent function is the inverse of the cotangent function, so that its value for any argument is an arc
(angle) whose cotangent equals the given argument.
That is, y = cot x if and only if x = cot y.
-1

For example,

Thus, the arc-cotangent function is defined for all real arguments, and its principal values are by convention taken to
be those strictly between 0 and pi.

The graph of the arc-tangent function

The graph of the arc-cotangent function

The arc-cosecant function and the arc-secant function
The arc-cosecant function y = csc x or y = arc csc x
-1

The arc-cosecant function is the inverse of the cosecant function, so that its value for any argument is an arc (angle)
whose cosecant equals the given argument.
That is, y = csc x if and only if x = csc y.
-1

For example,

Thus, the arc-cosecant function is defined for arguments less than -1 or greater than 1, and its principal values are by
convention taken to be those between -pi/2 and pi/2.

The arc-secant function y = sec x or y = arc sec x

-1

The arc-secant function is the inverse of the secant function, so that its value for any argument is an arc (angle)
whose secant equals the given argument.
That is, y = sec x if and only if x = sec y.
-1
For example,

Thus, the arc-secant function is defined for arguments less than -1 or greater than 1, and its principal values are by
convention taken to be those between 0 and pi.

The graph of the arc-cosecant function

The graph of the arc-secant function

4. Trigonometric Equations
Basic trigonometric equations
The trigonometric equation sin x = a
The trigonometric equation cos x = a
The trigonometric equation tan x = a
The trigonometric equation cot x = a
The trigonometric equations, sin (b x + c) = m and cos (b x + c) = m, where -1 < m < 1
The trigonometric equations, tan (b x + c) = m and cot (b x + c) = m, where b, c and m are real numbers
The trigonometric equation sin (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example
The trigonometric equation cos (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example
The trigonometric equation tan (b x + c) = m, example
The trigonometric equation cot (b x + c) = m, example
Basic trigonometric equations
An equation that involves one or more trigonometric functions, of an unknown arc, angle or number, is called
trigonometric equation.

The trigonometric equation sin x = a

To solve the equation we should find the arc x (or angle in radians) of which function value of sine equals a, where
Infinite many arcs whose sine value equals a end in the points P and P´ that is,

there are an infinite number of solutions obtained by giving different integer values to k. This is the set of the
general solutions of the given trigonometric equation.
For k = 0 obtained are,

the basic solutions.

The principal values of the inverse sine function, arc-sin or sin , are those between - pi/2 and pi/2.
-1

The above solutions of the equation

can concisely be written as

For example,

Using a scientific calculator to obtain principal (or basic) value of the inverse sine function, arcsine, input value for
a, and press sin (or INV sin or 2nd sin).
-1

Obtained is an arc (in radians) or angle (in degrees) between - pi/2 and pi/2, depending on what measurement (DEG
or RAD) was set before, by the DRG key.
Example: Solve the equation,

Solution: Let first find the basic solutions of the equation. We should remember values of the trigonometric
functions of some special arcs (angles) like

Since the basic solutions for the equation

While from

the general solutions of the given equation.

The basic solutions we see on the unit circle in the below figure while from the graph can be seen that the line y = -
3 /2 intersects the sine function at infinite many points whose abscissas represent the general solutions.
1/2
Example: Solve the equation, sin x = 0.433266.
Solution: Find the basic solution using a calculator. Press DRG key to set DEG, meaning degree measurement of
the corresponding angle, then input 0.433266 sin (or INV sin), obtained is
-1

To transform the decimal degrees to deg., min. and sec. form, press -> DMS.
The basic solution can be presented in radians by setting RAD measurement.
It is also possible an angle expressed in degrees convert straight to radians. While display shows decimal degrees
press DRG-> so obtained are,

Thus, general solution presented by angles,

or by arcs,

The trigonometric equation cos x = a, -1 < a < 1

The solutions of the equation are arcs x whose function's value of cosine equals a.

Infinite many arcs whose cosine value equals a, end in points P and P′, and that are

This is the set of the general solutions of the given equation.

For k = 0 follows the basic solutions of the equation

Therefore, if

For example if,

Since cosine function passes through all values from range -1 to 1 while arc x increases from 0 to pi, one of the arcs
from this interval must satisfy the equation cos x = a.
This arc denoted x , we call the basic solution.
0

Thus, the basic solution of the equation

is the value of inverse cosine function,

that is, an arc or angle (whose cosine equals a) between 0 and pi which is called the principal value.
Scientific calculators are equipped with the arc cos (or cos ) function which, for a given argument between -1 and 1,
-1

outputs arc (in radians) or angle (in degrees) from the range

Example: Solve the equation, cos x = - 0.5.

Solution: In the unit circle in the below figure shown are the two arcs, of which cosine value equals - 0.5, that
represent the basic solutions of the given equation

while the abscissas of the intersection points of the line y = - 0.5 with the graph of cosine function represent the set
of the general solution
The same results we obtain by using calculator if we set DEG then input
- 0.5 INV cos (or cos ) => x = 120 and x ′ = -120
-1
0
o
0
o

that are the basic solutions.

Or we input the same while calculator is set in RAD mode to get the arc in radians that is
x = 2.094395102 = 2pi/3 .
0
rad rad

The trigonometric equation tan x = a

The solutions of the equation are the arcs of which the function value of tangent equals a.
At the points, P and P′, of the unit circle, end infinite many arcs
whose tangent values equals a. These arcs represent the set of the general solution (see the figure below).
While the arc x increases from - pi/2 to pi/2 the function tangent passes through all the values from the range (- oo, +
oo), what means that the equation tan x = a will have its basic solution within that interval.
The basic solution

Example: Solve the equation, tan x = - 2.

Solution: Set a calculator to DEG mode and input
- 2 and press tan (or INV tan) key => x = - 63.43494882 = - 63 26′06′′
-1
0
o o

obtained is the basic solution

To convert from decimal degree to deg., min., sec form, press ->DMS key.
The general solution,

or in radians,

The trigonometric equation cot x = a

The solutions of the equation are arcs x whose function value of cotangent equals a.
At the points, P and P′, of the unit circle, end infinite many arcs
whose cotangent equals a. These arcs represent the general solution of the equation cot x = a.
The cotangent function passes through all the values from the range (- oo, + oo) while the arc x increases from 0 to
pi.
Therefore, the equation cot x = a will have its basic solution within that interval, as shows the graph above.
The basic solution is

and we calculate it using tangent function that is,

Thus,
By adding pi to the formula for the negative a, we compensate the difference in the definitions of the tangent of the
principal values of inverse cotangent and tangent.
We also can calculate the basic solution using the known identity tan (pi/2 - x ) = cot x .
0 0

By substituting

therefore

Example: Solve the equation, cot x = - 1.85.

Solution: The basic solution we calculate using formula,
x = pi/2 – arc tan a, or x = 90° - arc tan a.
0 0
Set a calculator to DEG mode and input
- 1.85 press tan (or INV tan) key => x = 90° - (- 61.60698058°) = 151°36′ 25.13″,
-1
0

and the general solution

x = x + k · pi or x = x + k · 180° = 151°36′ 25.13″ + k · 180°, k element Z.
0 0

The trigonometric equations, sin (b x + c) = m and cos (b x + c) = m, where -1 < m < 1

The trigonometric equations, tan (b x + c) = m and cot (b x + c) = m, where b, c and m are real numbers
These equations can be written as F (b x + c) = m, where F substitutes a trigonometric function, x is an arc to be
calculated and m is a value of a given trigonometric function.
To every trigonometric function we can determine an arc, alpha + k · P of which function value equals m that is F
(alpha + k · P) = m, where alpha = x is the basic solution, and P is the period, then
0

therefoređ

Thus, from obtained general solution we can write common solutions for every given equation,
sin (b x + c) = m and cos (b x + c) = m, where -1 < m < 1
tan (b x + c) = m and cot (b x + c) = m, where b, c and m are real numbers

The trigonometric equation sin (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example

Example: Solve the equation,

Solution: Rewrite the equation to the form sin (b x + c) = m, sin (2x + pi/6) = - 1/2 thus,
An alternative but similar solution can be obtained by substituting the values of, b, c and m, in
x = alpha and x′ = pi - alpha and to the common solution given above, thus
0 0
The trigonometric equation cos (b x + c) = m, -1 < m < 1, example
Example: Find the solutions of the equation, 2cos (4x – 30 ) + 3 = 0.
o 1/2

Solution: Rewrite the equation to the form cos (b x + c) = m, that is

The same results we get by substituting the values, b = 4, c = - 30 and m = - 3 /2, in

o 1/2
then, using the common solution formulas obtained are

The trigonometric equation tan (b x + c) = m, example

Example: Solve the equation,

Solution: Rewrite the equation to the form tan (b x + c) = m,

We obtain the same result if we put given parameters, b, c, and corresponding basic solution x = alpha = tan m to
0
-1

the common solution that is

The trigonometric equation cot (b x + c) = m, example
Example: Find the solutions of the equation, cot (- 2x + 10 ) - 1 = 0.
o

Solution: Rearrange the given equation to the form cot (b x + c) = m, thus cot (- 2x + 10 ) = 1, or cot [- (2x - 10 )] =
o o

1 and since

The general solution of the equation we get direct substituting the basic solution x = alpha and the constant b and c
0

to the common solution, b = 2, c = - 10 and

o
Trigonometric equations of quadratic form
Trigonometric equations of the type, a cos x + b sin x = c
Introducing an auxiliary angle method
Introducing an auxiliary angle method example
Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2
Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2, example
Trigonometric equations that can be written as f · g = 0
Homogeneous trigonometric equations in sin x and cos x
Homogeneous equations of first degree, a sin x + b cos x = 0

Homogeneous equations of second degree, a sin x + b sin x cos x + c cos x = 0

2 2

The basic strategy for solving trigonometric equations

Trigonometric equations examples
Trigonometric equations of quadratic form
The trigonometric equation of the quadratic form [F (x)] + p · F (x) + q = 0, where F (x) denotes given
2

trigonometric function, by substituting F (x) = u becomes a quadratic equation

returned into substitutions F (x) = u and F (x) = u lead to the known basic trigonometric equation.
1 2

Example: Find the solution set for the equation, 3sin x = 2cos x.
2

Solution: Using known identity we write 3sin x - 2(1 - sin x) = 0, and by plugging sin x = u
2

Therefore,
while the equation sin x = - 2 has no solutions since - 2 is not in the range of the sine function.
Thus, the solution set of the given equation is

Trigonometric equations of the type, a cos x + b sin x = c

To solve the trigonometric equations which are linear in sin x and cos x, and where, a, b, and c are real numbers we
can use the two methods,
a) introducing an auxiliary angle, and
b) introducing new unknown.

Introducing an auxiliary angle method

Consider the constants a and b as rectangular coordinates of a point expressed by polar coordinates (r, phi), then

By substituting for a and b in the equation a cos x + b sin x = c obtained is,

using addition formula yields,

we get the basic trigonometric equation whose solution is known, as the right side of the equation is constant.
Note that the equation, a cos x + b sin x = c will have a solution if

it follows that the constants, a, b and c should satisfy relation

Introducing an auxiliary angle method example

Example: Solve the equation,

Solution: Comparing corresponding parameters of the given equation with a cos x + b sin x = c it follows, a = 3 , b
1/2

= 1 and c = 1. Since
By substituting given quantities to the basic equation

The same solution can be obtained using following procedure, from

that means that, in the given equation we can introduce an auxiliary angle phi, that is
and this is the same basic equation obtained above.

Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2

If in the equation a cos x + b sin x = c we substitute the sine and cosine functions by tan x/2 = t that is,

the equation becomes

and after rearranging

Obtained quadratic equation will have real solutions t if its discriminant is greater than or equal to zero, that is if
1,2
which is earlier mentioned condition.
If this condition is satisfied, the solutions, t and t can be substituted in
1 2

Thus, obtained are the basic trigonometric equations.

Introducing new unknown t = tan x/2, example

Example: Solve the equation, 5 sin x - 4 cos x = 3.
Solution: Given equation is of the form, a cos x + b sin x = c therefore parameters are, a = - 4, b = 5 and c = 3, after
introducing new unknown tan x/2 = t and substituting the values of the parameters in equation

Obtained values for variable t we plug in substitutions,

The same result we obtain using the method of introducing the auxiliary angle phi. Plug the given parameters a = -
4, b = 5 and c = 3 in

then from the equation

Trigonometric equations of the form a cos x + b sin x = c we do not solve using the identity

since that way given equation becomes quadratic with four solutions but only two of them satisfy it.
We will solve the equation from the previous example using this method anyway.
Example: Solve the equation, 5 sin x - 4 cos x = 3 by substituting

Solution: Squaring both sides of an equation may introduce extraneous or redundant (not needed) solutions.
therefore
By plugging the results into given equation show that only solutions b) and c) satisfy the equation what match with
previous results obtained using another two methods.

Trigonometric equations that can be written as f · g = 0

If trigonometric equation can be rearranged by using appropriate transformations to the form

f·g=0
then, its solution is represented as the union of the individual solutions of the equations
f = 0 and g = 0.

Example: Solve the equation, sin (x + 30 ) + sin (30 - x) = 2cos x.

o o 2

Solution: Using the sum to product formula (or addition formula)

the equation gets the form

the equation is of the form f · g = 0 therefore,

Thus, the solution set of the given equation we can write as

Homogeneous trigonometric equations in sin x and cos x

An equation is said to be homogeneous if all its terms are of the same degree.

Homogeneous equations of first degree, a sin x + b cos x = 0

Divide given equation by cos x to obtain

a tan x + b = 0 or tan x = - b/a,
the basic equation whose solution is
Example: Solve the equation, - sin x + 3 · cos x = 0.
1/2

Solution: Dividing given equation by - cos x obtained is

Homogeneous equations of second degree, a sin x + b sin x cos x + c cos x = 0

2 2

After division of the given equation by cos x obtained is quadratic equation

2

a tan x + b tan x + c = 0
2

which is the quadratic equation in tan x, explained in the previous section.

The next example shows that the equation a sin x + b sin x · cos x + c cos x = d is also homogeneous.
2 2

Example: Find the solution set for the equation, 5sin x + sin x cos x + 2cos x = 4.
2 2

Solution: Given equation is equivalent to the equation

which, when simplified becomes

the homogeneous equation of the second degree.

Division by cos x gives,
2
The basic strategy for solving trigonometric equations
When solving trigonometric equations we usually use some of the following procedures,
- apply known identities to modify given equation to an equivalent expressed in terms of one function,
- rearrange the given equation using different trigonometric formulae to an equivalent, until you recognize one of
the known types.

Trigonometric equations examples

Example: Solve the equation,

Solution: Given equation can be written as

4 sin (x + 70°) - sin (x + 70°) + 4 sin (x + 160°) + sin (x + 160°) = 0,
or 4 [sin (x + 70°) + sin (x + 160°)] = sin (x + 70°) - sin (x + 160°),

then, by using sum to product formula

therefore, the solution

Example: Find the solution of the equation, 2 sin (x + 60°) · cos x = 1.

Solution: Applying products as sums formula
2 · (1/2) [sin (x + 60° + x) + sin (x + 60° - x)] = 1 or sin (2x + 60°) + sin 60° = 1, then
therefore, the solutions

Example: Find the solution of the equation,

Solution: Using identities

the equation becomes

and applying the formula

thus,
Example: Solve the equation cos 2x + cos 6x - cos 8x - 1 = 0.
Solution: To the first two terms apply the sum to product formula and remaining two terms transform using known
identity, thus

and since
1 + cos 2x = 2cos x 2

then,

1 + cos 8x = 2cos 4x
2

by plugging in the given equation

2cos 4x · cos 2x - 2cos 4x = 0 or 2cos 4x · (cos 2x - cos 4x) = 0,
2

and as

the equation is rearranged to

4cos 4x · sin 3x · sin x = 0
meaning,
 cos 4x = 0, sin 3x = 0 and/or sin x = 0.
Since

solutions of the equation sin x = 0 are included in the solutions of sin 3x = 0.

If sin x = 0 then,
sin 3x = 3sin x - 4sin x = sin x · (3 - 4sin x) = 0.
3 2

Therefore, the solution set of the given equation is the union of the solutions of each of the equations, that is