Introduction to Electrical Machines

CHAPTER THREE
INDUCTION MACHINES
3.1. ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
Three electrical Machines (dc, induction & synchronous) are used extensively for
electromechanical energy conversion. In these machines, conversion of energy results
from the following two electromagnetic phenomena.

1. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is induced in the

conductor: (generator action)

2. When a current –carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the

conductor experiences a mechanical force (Motor action)

Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion

Note that the two systems in Figure 3.1, electrical and mechanical, are different in
nature. In electrical system the primary quantities involved are voltage & current while
in mechanical system, the analogous quantities are torque & speed. The coupling
medium between these different systems is the magnetic field.

The basic electrical machines (induction, dc, and synchronous), which depend on
electromagnetic energy conversion, are extensively used in various power ratings. The
operation, construction and characteristic features of these machines are discussed in
detail in this and other chapters.

3.2. INTRODUCTION
The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in industry.
The induction machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and separated from
the stator by an air gap. However, in the induction machine both stator winding and rotor
winding carry alternating current. The alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator
winding machine.

The induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it is
seldom used as a generator supplying electrical power to a load. The performance
characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory for most applications. The induction
machine is extensively used as a motor in many applications.

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Of all the a.c motors the poly-phase induction motor is the one which is extensively used
for various kinds of industrial drives. It has the following main advantages and also some
disadvantages.

Advantages:

1. It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction

(especially squirrel cage type)

2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable

3. It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes are

needed, hence frictional losses are reduced.

4. It has a reasonably good power factor

5. it requires minimum of maintenance

6. It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be
synchronized. Its starting arrangement is simple especially – for squirrel- cage type
motor.

Disadvantage

1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.

2. Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load

3. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a d.c shunt motor

The induction motor is used in various sizes:

• Large three-phase induction motors (in tens or hundreds of horsepower) are used in
pumps, fans, compressors, paper mills, textile mills and so forth.

• Small single-phase induction motors (in fractional horsepower rating) are used in
many household appliances, such as blenders, lawn mowers, juice mixers, washing
machines, refrigerators, and stereo turntables.

• The linear version of the induction machine has been developed primarily for use
in transportation systems.

The induction machine is undoubtedly a very useful electrical machine. Two-phase

induction motors are used primarily as servomotors in a control system. Three-phase
induction motors are the most important ones and are most widely used in industry. In
this unit the constructional features, operation, stator windings, characteristic futures, and
steady- state performance of the three-phase induction machine are studied in detail.

3. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This
type of motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The stator and rotor do
the work, and the enclosure protects the stator and rotor.

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

a) Stator

The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel and is built up of sheet
steel lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness. Laminations are insulated from each other by
means of varnish coating or oxide (Figure 3.2(a)). A three-phase winding is put in slots
punched out on the inner surface of the stator frame. It is made up of a number of
stampings which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries a 3-phase winding
and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles, the number
of poles being determined by the requirements of speed. Greater the number of poles,
lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase
currents, produce a magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or
120. f
rotates) at synchronous speed (given by N s = ). This revolving magnetic flux
P
induces an emf in the rotor by mutual induction.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2 induction machine laminations (a)Stator and (b)rotor

b) Rotor

The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out on
the outer surface (Figure 3.2 (b). The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a result
thicker laminations can be used without excessive iron losses. Two types of rotor
construction is normally used for three phase induction motor.
Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some motors, like
the one shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also mounted on the rotor shaft, to
cool the motor when the shaft is rotating.
(i) Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel-
cage induction motors.

(ii) Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are
variously known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or slip-ring motors.

Squirrel –Cage Rotor

Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type ‘rotor'
has the simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible.
The squirrel cage rotor is so called because its construction is reminiscent of the rotating

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

exercise wheels found in some pet cages. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated
core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors which, it should be noted
clearly, are not wires but consist of heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys. One bar is
placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the end when semi-closed slots are
used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted to two heavy and stout
short circuiting end-rings.

It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves,
hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for
starting purposes.

Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM

1.Shaft ; 2. Ball bearings; 3. Bearings shield; 4. Terminal box ; 5. Fan (ventilator) ; 6. Ball bearings; 7.
Bearings shield;8. Ventilator shield ; 9. Rotor core; 10. Stator core; 11. Frame; 12. Basement

b)

a)

Figure 3.4 a) Real squirrel cage rotor and b) Schematic diagram of cage rotor

The rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the shaft but are purposely give a slight
skew. This is useful in two ways:

i.) it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and

ii.) it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the rotor
teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two.

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

In small motors, another method of construction is used. It consists of placing the entire
rotor core in a mould and casting all the bars and end-rings in one piece. The metal
commonly used is an aluminum alloy.

Phase –Wound Rotor

This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding consisting
of coils as used in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of
stator poles and is always wound 3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase.

Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction machine

1.Ball bearings 2. Bearings shield 3. Enclosure; 4.Stator core with windings 5.Rotor
core 6.Bearings shield 7.Ball bearings; 8.Shaft ; 9.Terminal box ; 10. Basement; 11.
slip-rings

a)

b)

Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor

The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out
and connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with brushes resting on
them. These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected
rheostat. This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit
during the starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor and for changing

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

its speed-torque/ current characteristic. When running under normal condition, the slip-
rings are automatically short-circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along
the shaft and connect all the rings together (Figure 3.7). Next, the brushes are
automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the frictional losses and the wear and
tear. Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short–
circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.

3-phase
supply

stator

Slip-rings

rotor

Starting
Rheostat

Figure 3.7 Three-phase wound –rotor induction motor with external starting rheostat.

c) Enclosure

The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings).
The stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air-
gap separating it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor
and the stator. The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other
environmental elements. The degree of protection depends upon the type of enclosure
(See Appendix D).

Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors.

The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound rotor
machine.

i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting rheostats
are required. The star delta starter is sufficient for staring.

ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.

iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction

iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a smaller
copper loss.

v. It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the cooling conditions are better

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

vi. It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and greater pull
out torque and overload capacity.

The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert
resistance in the rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque, reducing
the starting current and varying the speed as compared with wound rotor motor.

3.4. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 1200 are fed
by three-phase current displaced in time by 1200 they produce a resultant magnetic flux
which rotated in space as if actual magnetic poles were being rotated mechanically.

Let a 3-phase , two-pole stator having three identical winding placed 120 space degrees
apart and the flux ( assumed sinusoidal) due to three-phase windings as shown in Figure
3.8(a). The assumed positive directions of the fluxes are shown Figure 3.8(b).

φ
φB

φm

120°
φA 120°
O
120°

θ
φC

(a) (b)

Figure 3.8 (a) flux waveforms due to three-phase windings and (b) positive directions of the
fluxes

Let the maximum value of flux due to any one of the three phases to φm. The resultant
flux φr, at any instant, is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes φA, φB and φC
due to three phases. We will consider values of φr at four instants 1/6 time-period apart
corresponding to points marked 0,1,2 and 3 in Figure 3.7(a).

i) When θ = 00 i.e. corresponding to point 0 in Figure 3.8 (a).

Here

3 3
φ A = 0, φB = − φm , φC = φm ,
2 2
The vector for Oφ B in Figure 3.9(i) is drawn in a direction opposite to the direction
assumed positive in Figure 3.8(b).

3 600 3 3
φr =2× φmCos = 3× φm = φm
2 2 2 2

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

(ii) When θ = 600 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Figure 3.8(a).

Here
3
φA = φm
2
………drawn in parallel to OφA of Figure 3.8 (b) as shown in Figure 3.9 (ii)

3
φB = − φm
2
………drawn in opposition to Oφ B of Figure 3.8(b) as shown in Figure 3.9(ii)

φC = 0
3 3 3
φr =2× φm Cos30° = 3 × φm = φm
2 2 2
3
It is found that the resultant flux is again φ m but has rotated clockwise through an angle
2
of 600.

(iii) When θ = 1200 i.e. corresponding to point 2 in Figure 3.8(a).

Here

3 3
φA = φm , φ B = 0, φc = − φm
2 2
3
It can be again proved that φ r = φ m .So, the resultant flux is again of the same value but
2
has further rotated clockwise through an angle of 600 [Figure 3.9 (iii)].

(iv) When θ = 1800 i.e. corresponding to point 3 in Figure 3.7a.

3 3
φ A = 0, φB = φm , φC = − φm
2 2

3
The resultant is φm and has rotated clockwise through an additional angle of 600 or
2
through an angle of 1800 from the start.

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

ΦA
− ΦB ΦC

− ΦB

Φr = 1.5Φm Φr = 1.5Φm

i) θ = 0° ii) θ = 60°

Φr = 1.5Φm
− ΦC

ΦC ΦB
ΦA
Φr = 1.5Φm

iii) θ = 120° iv) θ = 180°

Figure 3.9 Resultant flux phasor of 3-phase IM at interval of 60°
Hence, we can conclude the above discussion as follow:
3
1. The resultant flux is of constant value = φ m i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value
2
of the flux due to any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given
120. f
by N s =
P
Figure 3.10 shows the graph of the rotating flux in simple way. As before the positive
directions of the flux phasors have been shown separately in Figure 3.10. Arrows on
these flux phasors are reversed when each phase passes through zero and becomes
negative.
φA φB φC
φ

φm

0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°

Figure 3.10 a graph of the rotating flux

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

As seen, positions of the resultant flux phasor have been shown at intervals of 600 only.
The resultant flux produces a field rotating in the clockwise direction.

N.B. The direction of rotation of a polyphase Induction motor depends on the motor
connection to the power lines. Rotation can be readily reversed by interchanging any two
input leads.

5. PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed , is set up. The flux pass through
the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet
stationery. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s laws of electro-
magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is the same as the supply
frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between the flux and the
conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since the rotor bars
or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced direction, as given by
Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which
produce the rotor current is relative speed between the rotating flux of the stator and the
stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in
the same direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.

The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor is explained below:
In Figure 3.11(a) is shown the stator field which is assumed to be rotting clockwise. The
relative motion of the rotor with respect to the stator is anticlockwise. By applying
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced emf in the rotor is found to be
outwards. Hence the direction of the flux due to the rotor current alone is as shown in
Figure 3.11 (b). Now by applying the left-hand rule or by the effect of combined field
(Figure 3.11c) it is clear the rotor conductors experience a force tending to rotate them in
clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor set into rotation in the same direction as the of the
stator flux ( or field).
stator

rotor
Relative
motion
(b)

stator

rotor
(c)

Figure 3.11 pertaining to principle operation of induction motor

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close to synchronous
speed and therefore emf in the rotor winding will be very small. This small emf gives a
small current producing a torque just sufficient to overcome the losses such as due to
friction and windage and maintain the rotor in rotation. As the mechanical load is applied
on the motor shaft, it must slow down because the torque developed at no load will not
be sufficient to keep the rotor revolving at the no load speed against the additional
opposing torque of load. As the motor slows down, the relative motion between the
magnetic field and the rotor is increased. This results in greater rotor emf, rotor current
and greater developed torque. Thus, as the load is increased, the motor slows down until
the relative motion between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field is just sufficient to
result in the development of the torque necessary for that particular load.

Slip

In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really did so,
then there would be no relative speed between the two hence no rotor emf no rotor
current and so no torque to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor runs at a speed,
which is always less than the speed of the stator field. The difference in speeds depends
upon the load on the motor .

The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor is
known as slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is
usual to express it as a percentage of the synchronous speed . Actually, the term 'slip' is
descriptive of the way in which the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.

Ns − N
S% = X 100
Ns

Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is
N = N s (1 − S)

It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the stator
( i.e. stationary space but at slip-speed relative to the rotor.

Frequency of rotor current

When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the
relative speed or on slip-speed.

Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr . Then,

120 f r
Ns − N = .
p
120 f
Also N s =
p

fr Ns − N
= = S;
Dividing one by the other, we get, f Ns
∴ f r = sf

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of fr = sf and when flowing through the
individual phases of rotor winding give rise to rotor magnetic fields. These individual
rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating magnetic field whose speed relative to
rotor is

120 f r 120 sf
= = = sN s
P P

However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.

Hence,

speed of rotor field in space = speed of field to rotor + speed of rotor relative to space
= SN s + N = N s (1 − S) = N s

It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator currents each
produce a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and constant
space speed of Ns. In other words, both the rotor and stator field rotate synchronously
which means that they are stationary with respect to each other. These two
synchronously rotating magnetic fields in fact, superimpose on each other and given rise
to the actually existing rotating field which corresponds to the magnetizing current of the
stator winding.

Example 3.1 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m.
For this motor, calculate the following:

(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator field
with respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and (d) speed of rotor field with
respect to (i) rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii) stator field. For parts (c) and (d),
answer should be given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120 × f 1
NS =
P
120 × 50
Or 1440 =
P
120 × 50 1
or P= = 4 poles
1440 6
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor must
have 4 poles. Note that an induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than synchronous
speed.

(b) Synchronous speed,

120 × f1 120 × 50
NS = = = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

N s − N 1500 − 1440
∴ Slip, S = = = 0.04
Ns 1500

Rotor frequency, f 2 = Sf1 = 0.04 × 50 = 2 Hz

(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure

= NS = 1500rpm
2 π × N S 2 π × 1500
∴ ωS = = = 150.08 rad / s
60 60
(ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500 − 1440 = 60 rpm
2π × 60
= = 6.283 rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
120 ( rotor frequency )
=
poles
120 × 2
= = 60 r.p.m. = 6.283 rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure

=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)

= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.

(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of 1500 rpm
with respect to stator structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is zero.
Thus the stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other.

Example 3.2 A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the rotor

circuit of a 6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. If the galvanometer makes 90
complete oscillations in one minute, calculate the rotor speed.

Solution. One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of rotor

frequency.

90
∴Rotor frequency, f 2 = Sf1 = = 1.5 Hz
60

f 2 1 .5
or Slip, S = = = 0.03 s = fz fl =501.5 = 0.03
f1 50

120 × 50
Rotor speed, N = N S (1 − S) = (1 − 0.03) = 970 r.p.m.
6

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

6. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

The preceding sections have provided an appreciation of the physical behavior of the
induction machine. We now proceed to develop an equivalent circuit model that can be
used to study and predict the performance of the induction machine with reasonable
accuracy. In this section a steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit will be derived.

For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-rotor induction machine a shown in

Figure 3.12. In the case of a squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor circuit can be represented by an
equivalent three-phase rotor winding. If currents flow in both stator and rotor windings,
rotating magnetic fields will be produced in the air gap.

Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

Because they rotate at the same speed in the air gap, they will produce a resultant air gap
field rotating at the synchronous speed. This resultant air gap field will induce voltages
in both stator windings (at slip frequency f1) and rotor windings (at slip frequency f2). It
appears that the equivalent circuit may assume a form identical to that of a transformer.

3.6.1. Stator Equivalent Circuit

The stator winding can be represented as shown in Figure 3.13(a),

(a)

Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage

R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance

X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance

E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance

Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance

Note that there is no difference in form between this equivalent circuit and that of the
transformer primary winding. The difference lies only in the magnitude of the
parameters. For example, the excitation current Io is considerably large in the induction
machine because of the air gap. In induction machines it is as high as 30 to 50 percent of
the rated current, depending on the motor size where as it is only 1 to 5 percent in
transformers. Moreover, the leakage reactance X1 is large because of the air gap and also
because the stator and rotor windings are distributed along the periphery of the air gap
rather than concentrated on a core, as in the transformer.

3.6.2. Rotor Equivalent Circuit

The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure 3.13 (b).

R2
S

(b) (c)

Where, E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator

frequency f1)

R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance

X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance

Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is

sE 2
I2 = 3.1
R2 + jsX 2

The power involved in the circuit is

P2 = I 2 R2
2
3.2

Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase

Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as

E2
I2 = 3.3
( R2 / s ) + jX 2

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Equation (3.3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13 (c). Although the
magnitude and phase angle of I2 are the same in Eqs.(3.1)and (3.3), there is a significant
difference between these two equations and the circuits (Figure 3.13 (b) and (c)) they
represent. The current I2 in Eq.(3.1) is at slip frequency f2, where as I2 in Equation (3.3)
is at line frequency f1. In Eq.(3.1) the rotor leakage reactance SX2 varies with speed but
resistance R2 remains fixed, whereas in Eq.(3.3) the resistance R2/s varies with speed but
the leakage reactance X2 remains unaltered. The per-phase power associated with the
equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c).

R2 P2
P = I2 =
2
3.4
S S
Because induction machines are operated at low slips (typical values of slip s are 0.01 to
0.05) the power associated with Figure 3.13(c) is considerably larger. Note that the
equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) is at the stator frequency, and therefore this is the
rotor equivalent circuit as seen from the stator. The power in Eq.(3.4) therefore
represents the power that crosses the air gap and thus includes the rotor copper loss as
well as the mechanical power developed, Equation (3.4) can be rewritten as .
 R 
P = Pag = I 2 2  R2 + 2 ( 1 − s 
 S  3.5
R
= I 22 2
S
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.13(d).

R2
(1 − S )
S

(d)
The speed dependent resistance R2 (1-s)/s represents the mechanical power developed by
the induction machine.
R 2
P mech = I22 ( 1 − S)
S
= ( 1 − S ) P ag
1− S
= .P2
S
and
P 2 = I 2 2 R 2 = SP ag
Thus
P ag : P 2 :P mech = 1:S :1− S

This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (i.e. power crossing the
air gap, Pag), a fraction s is dissipated in the resistance of the rotor circuit (known as

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

rotor copper loss) and the fraction 1-s is converted into mechanical power. Therefore, for
efficient operation of the induction machine, it should operate at a low slip so that more
of the air gap power is converted into mechanical power. Part of the mechanical power
will be lost to overcome the windage and friction. The remainder of the mechanical
power will be available as out put shaft power.

3.6.3. Complete Equivalent Circuit

The stator equivalent circuit, Figure 3.13(a) and the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure
3.13(c) or (d) are at the same line frequency f1 and therefore can be joined together.
However, E1 and E2 may be different if the turns in the stator wining and the rotor
winding are different. If the turns ratio  a = N1  is considered, the equivalent circuit of
 N2 
the induction machine is that shown in Figure 3.13(e). Note that the form of the
equivalent circuit is identical to that of a two-winding transformer, as expected.

I2
I 2' = X 2' = a 2 X 2
a

E2' = aE2 = E1 R2' a 2 R2

=
S S

(e)

Figure 3.13 Development of the induction machine equivalent circuit

3.6.4. Various equivalent circuit

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure3.13 (e) is not convenient to use for predicting the
performance of the induction machine. As a result, several simplified versions have been
proposed in various textbooks on electric machines. There is no general agreement on
how to treat the shunt branch (i.e., Rc and Xm), particularly the resistance RC representing
the core loss in the machine. Some of the commonly used versions of the equivalent
circuit are discussed here.

3.6.5. Approximate Equivalent Circuit

If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1 does not
appreciably differ from the induced voltage E1, the magnetizing branch (i.e. Rc and Xm),
can be moved to the machine terminals as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

R2'
S

(a)
This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify computation,
because the excitation current (Io) and the load component (I'2) of the machine current
can be directly computed from the terminal voltage V1 by dividing it by the
corresponding impedance.
Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and
frequency the stator core loss is fixed. At no load, the machine will operate close to
synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor frequency f2 is very small and hence rotor core
loss is very small. At a lower speed f2 increases and so does the rotor core loss. The total
core losses thus increase as the speed falls. On the other hand, at no load, friction and
windage losses are maximum and as speed falls these losses decreases. Therefore, if a
machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-frequency source, the sum of
core losses and friction and windage losses remains essentially constant at all operating
speeds. These losses can thus be lumped together and termed the constant rotational
losses of the induction machine. If the core loss is lumped with the windage and frication
loss Rc can be removed from the equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 3.14(b).
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Xm R2'
S

Pag

(b)
Figure 3.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of Induction motor
3.6.6. IEEE1 Recommended Equivalent Circuit
In the induction machine, because of its air gap, the exciting current Io is high of the
order of 30 to 50 percent of the full-load current. The leakage Reactance X1 is also high .
The IEEE recommends that in such situation, the magnetizing reactance Xm not be
moved to the machine terminals (as is done in Figure 3.14b), but be retained at its
appropriate place, as shown in Figure 3.15. The resistance RC is however, omitted, and
the core loss is lumped with the windage and friction losses. This equivalent circuit
1
IEEE-Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

(Figure 3.15) is to be preferred for situation in which the induced voltage E1 differs
appreciably from the terminal voltage V1.
I'2 X'2

R '2
S

Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

3.6.7. Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit

In order to simplify computations V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced by Thevenin's
equivalent circuit values Vth, Rth and Xth, as shown in Figure 3.16.

R2
S

Figure 3.16 Thevenin Equivalent circuit

X
V = m
⋅ V
[R ]
th 1 1
+ (X + X
2 2 2
1 1 m )

Where

If R12 << ( X 1 + X m ) 2 as is usually the case

Xm
Vth ≈ V1
X1 + X m
Vth = K th V1

Xm
Where, K th =
X1 + X m

The Thevenin impedance is

jX m ( R1 + jX 1 )
Z th =
R1 + j ( X 1 + X m )
= Rth + jX th

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

If R12 << ( X 1 + X m ) 2

2
 Xm 
R th ≈   R1
 X1 + X m 
= K 2 th R1

and since X1 << Xm

Xth ≈ X1

Example 3.3 A 3-phase slip ring induction motor gives a reading of 55V across slip
rings on open circuit when at rest with normal stator voltage applied. The rotor is star-
connected and has impedance of (0.7 + j 5) per phase. Find the rotor current when the
machine is (a) at stand still with the slip rings joined to a star-connected starter with a
phase impedance of (4 + j 3) ohms and (b) running normally with a 5 percent slip.

Solution
(a) At standstill, i.e. S=1
55
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding, E 2 = = 31.8V
3
Resistance per phase in rotor circuit, r2 = 0.7 + 4 = 4.7 = 4.7 Ω
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x 2 = 5 + 3 = 8Ω
Impendence per phase in rotor circuit, z 2 = r22 + x 22 = 4.7 2 + 8 2 = 9.28Ω
E 31.8
Rotor current per phase, I 2 = 2 = = 3.425 A
z 2 9.28
r 4 .7
Power factor cos θ 2 = 2 = = 0.506 ( lagging )
z 2 9.28
(b) Running normally at 5 Percent slip
Induced e.m.f in rotor winding per phase,
E2 S = SE2 = 0.05 × 31.8 = 1.59 V
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit,
x 2 S = Sx2 = 0.05 × 5 = 0.25 Ω
Rotor impedance per phase,
z 2 S = r22 + x 22S = (0.7 )2 + (0.25 )2 = 0.7433Ω

E2 S 1.59
Rotor current per phase, I 2 = = = 2.14 A
z 2 S 0.7433
Power factor,
r 0 .7
cos θ 2 = 2 = = 0.92 ( lagging )
z 2 S 0.7433

Example 3.4 A 3φ, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm induction motor delivers full
output power to a load connected to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of the motor
is 750 W. Determine the

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

a) Mechanical power developed.

b) Air gap power
c) Rotor copper loss.
Solution

a) Full-load shft power, Pshaft = 15 × 746 = 11,190 W

Mechanical power developed, Pmech = Pshaft + Pf&w

= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W

120 × f 120 × 60
b) Synchronous speed, N s = = = 1800 rpm
P 4

N s − N 1800 − 1728
Slip, S= = = 0.04
Ns 1800

Pmech 11,940
Air gap power, Pag = = = 12 ,437.5 W
1 − S 1 − 0.04

c) Rotor copper loss, P2 = SPag = 0.04 × 12 ,437.5 = 497.5 W

3.7. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the
performance characteristics of the induction machine. The important performance,
characteristics in the steady state are the efficiency, power factor, current, starting torque
maximum (or pull-out) torque, and so forth.

The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by

R2
Pmech = Tmech . ω = I2 . (1 − S ) 33331
2
mech 3.6
S
Where,

2π N
ωmech = 3.6 a
60
The mechanical speed ω mech is related to the synchronous speed by

ωmech = ( 1 − S )ωsyn
Ns 11 3.7
= 2π ( 1 − s )
60
and

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

120 f
ω syn = x 2π 3.8
P .60
From Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)

2
I R
Tmech .ω syn = 2 2 = pag 3.9
S

1
T mech = .Pag 3.10
ω syn

1 R2
=
2
.I2 3.10a
ω syn S

1 R2
=
2
I2 3.11
ω syn S

From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Eq.1.11

2
1 V th R2
T mech = . . 3.12
ω syn ( R th
R
+ 2 )2 + ( X + X ) 2 S
th 2
S

Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.13(b) are used to determine I2
in Eq.(3.12) Vth, Rth and Xth should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1 respectively. The
prediction of performance based on the approximate equivalent circuit may differ by 5
percent from those based on the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15 or Figure 3.16.

For a three-phase machine Eq.3.12 should be multiplied by three to obtain the total
torque developed by the machine.
2
3 V th R2
T 3 φ , mech = . .
ω syn ( R th +
R2 2
) + (X + X )2 S
th 2
S

The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure 3.17. At low values of slip,

R 2' R 2'
(R th + ) >> ( X th + X '
2 ) and >> R th
S S

And thus

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

1 V 2 th
Tmech ≈ . .S 3.13
ω syn R' 2

Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure 3.17 near the synchronous
speed. Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.14) are used in, Eq.
(3.13), Vth should replaced by V1. At larger values of slip,
R 2'
R th + << X th + X '
2
S
and
1 V th R'2
T mech ≈ . . 3.14
ω syn (X th + X '2 )2 S

The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as seen from Figure 3.16.
Equation (3.12) also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed value of s) the torque
varies as the square of the supply voltage Vth (hence V1).

Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

Figure 3.18 shows the T-N profile at various supply voltages. This aspect will be
discussed further in a later section on speed control of induction machines by changing
the stator voltage.

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Maximum Torque

dT mech
An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting = 0.
dS
Differentiating Eq. (3.12) with respect to slip s and equating the result to zero gives the
following condition for maximum torque.

R 2'
S T max
[
= R th2 + ( X th + X 2' ) 2 ]
1
2
3.15

This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the condition for maximum
torque corresponds to the condition for maximum air gap power (Eq.3.10). This occurs,
by the familiar impedance-matching principle in circuit theory, when the impedance of
R'2/s equals in magnitude the impedance between it and the supply voltage V1 (Figure
3.16) as shown in Eq.(3.15). The slip Smax at maximum torque Tmax is

R 2'
ST =
[R ]
max 1 3.16
2
th + ( X th + X '
2 ) 2 2

The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16) is
2
1 V th
Tmax = . 3.17
2ω syn R th + [ R th2 + ( X th + X 2' ) 2 ]
1
2

Equation (3.17) shows that the maximum torque developed by the induction machine is
independent of the rotor circuit resistance. However, from Eq. (3.16) it is evident that the
value of the rotor resistance R2 determines the speed at which this maximum torque will
occur. The torque-speed characteristics for various values of R2 are shown in
Figure.3.19.

Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the rotor circuit to

make the maximum torque occur at standstill so that high starting torque can be
obtained. As the motor speeds up, the external resistance is gradually decreased and
finally taken out completely. Some induction motors are, in fact, designed so that
maximum torque is available at start, that is, at zero speed.

If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly small), from Eqs. (3.16) and
(3.17),

R 2'
S T max ≈ 3.18
X th + X 2'
2
1 V th
T max ≈ ⋅ 3.19
2ω syn X th + X '
2

Equation (3.19) indicates that the maximum torque developed by induction machine is
inversely proportional to the sum of the leakage reactances. From Eq. (3.12), the ratio of
the maximum torque developed to the torque developed at any speed is
2

 R th +
R 2'
S

 + (X th + X '
2 ) 2

T max
=   ⋅
S 3.20
2
T   S
(X )
'
 R R  2 T max
+ 2
+ + X '
 th
S  th 2
 T max 

If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,

2

 + (X )
 R 2'  2
 th + X '
2
T max
=  S  ⋅
S
2 3.21
T  R 2'  S T max
  + (X + X '
) 2
 ST  th 2
 max 

From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.21)

2 2
 R 2'   R' 
  +  2 
 S   ST 
Tmax
=  max  ⋅ S
2 3.22
T  R 2'  S T max
2 
 ST 
 max 
2

Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by  R2 

'

S 
 T  max

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

1  S T   S
2
T max
=    + 1
max

T 2   S   S T max

1  ST + S  S
2 2

=  max

2 S2  ST max

1 S +S 
2 2

=
T max
 
2  S ⋅ ST  max

Hence,

T max S T2 + S 2

= max 3.23
T 2ST S max

Equation (3.23) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the maximum
torque in terms of their slip values.

Example 3.5 A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, induction motor runs on full load with a slip of
4 percent. Given the rotor standstill impedance per phase as (0.01 + j 0.05)Ω, calculate
the available maximum torque in terms of full load torque. Also determine the speed at
which the maximum torque occurs. .
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.01Ω
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.05Ω
Full load slip, S=4%=0.04
Ratio of maximum torque to full load torque
2
 R2   0.01 
2
  + S 2fl  + (0.04 )
2

 X2  =  0.05  =
0.0416
= 2 .6
R2 0.01 0 . 016
2 ⋅ S fl 2 ⋅ 0.04
X2 0.05

Maximum torque, Tmax = 2.6 T fl

R2 0.01
(ii) Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max = = = 0 .2
X 2 0.05

Speed corresponding to maximum torque,

120 × 50
N = N s ( 1 − ST max ) = ( 1 − 0.2 )
6
= 800 r . p .m .

Example 3.6 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.024Ω
per phase and standstill reactance of 0.6 Ω per phase. Determine the speed at which the
maximum torque is developed.

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024Ω
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6Ω
Since the torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip which
makes rotor reactance per phase equal to the rotor resistance per phase,
R 0.024
Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max = 2 = = 0.04
X2 0 .6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,

N = N S (1 − S T max )
120 × 50
= (1 − 0.04 )
4
= 1440 rpm

Example 3.7 The maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor is twice the full load
torque and starting torque is equal to full load torque. Calculate the full load speed and
the slip at which maximum torque occurs.
Solution Maximum torque, Tmax = 2T fl
Starting torque, Tst = T fl
Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque,
Tst
= 0 .5
Tmax
Since from Eq.1.23
Tst 2S
= 2 T max
Tmax ST max + 1

2 S T max
0 .5 =
ST2 max + 1

or ST2 max − 4 S T max + 1 = 0

Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,

4 ± 42 − 4
ST max = = 2 − 3 = 0.268 rejecting higher value
2

Let the full load slip of Sfl. Since the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque
(Eq.3.23) is given by the expression

T fl 2 ST max ⋅ S fl
=
Tmax ST2 max + S 2fl

1 2 × 0.268 × S fl
Or =
2 0.268 2 + S 2fl

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Or 0268 2 + S 2fl = 4 × 0.268 = 0

Or S fl = 0.072 rejecting higher value.

Full load speed,

N = N S (1 − S fl ) = N s (1 − 0.072 ) = 0.928 N s i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed

STATOR CURRENT

From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit Figure 3.16, the input impedance is

 R 2' 
Z1 = R 1 + jX 1 + X m //  + jX '
2 
 S 
= R 1 + jX 1 + X m // Z 2'

 R 2' 
jX m  + jX '
2 
Z 1 = R 1 + jX +  S 
1
R 2'
+ j( X m + X 2' )
S
= Z1 ∠ θ1

The stator current is

V1
I1= = I o + I 2'
Z1

At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R2'/s is infinite and so I2' = 0. The stator current I1 is
the exciting current Io. At larger values of slip S2'(=R2'/s +jX2’) is low and therefore
I2'(and hence I1) is large. In fact, the typical starting current (i.e. at S=1) is five to eight
times the rated current. The typical stator current variation with speed is shown in Figure
3.20.

Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

INPUT POWER FACTOR

The supply power factor is given by

PF = Cosθ1

where θ1 is the phase angle of the stator current I1. This phase angle θ1 is the same as the
impedance angle of the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15. The typical power factor
variation with speed is shown in Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed

EFFICIENCY

In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power converter, the
various losses in the machine are first identified. These losses are illustrated in the power
flow diagram of Figure 3.22 For a 3φ machine the power input to the stator is

Pin =3V1 I1 Cos θ1

The power loss in the stator windings is

P1 = 3 I 12 R 1

Where R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at the
operating temperature and frequency.

Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material of the
stator core. The remaining power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the
resistance of the rotor circuit. P2 = 3I 22 R 2

Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding. If it is a wound-rotor machine, R2

also includes any external resistance connected to the rotor circuit through slip rings.

Power is also lost in the rotor core. Because the core losses are dependent on the
frequency f2 of the rotor, these may be negligible at normal operating speeds, where f2
very low.

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Pin = 3V1I1Cosθ1

Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor

The remaining is converted into mechanical form. Part of this is lost as windage and
friction losses, which are dependent on speed. The rest is the mechanical output power
Pout which is the useful power output from the machine.

The efficiency of the induction motor is

Pout
η= 3.24
Pin

The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in the
resistance of the rotor circuit,

Pag = Pin

P2 = sPag

Pout = Pmech = Pag (1−S)

and the ideal efficiency is

Pout
η (ideal ) = =1− S 3.25
Pin

Sometimes η(ideal) is also called the internal efficiency as it represents the ratio of the
power output to the air gap power. The ideal efficiency as a function of speed is shown
in Figure 3.23. It indicates that an induction machine must operate near its synchronous
speed if high efficiency is desired. This is why the slip is very low for normal operation
of the induction machine. If other losses are included, the actual efficiency is lower than
the ideal efficiency of Eq.(3.25) as shown in Figure.3.23. The full-load efficiency of a
large induction motor may be as high as 95 percent.

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 3.23 Efficiency as a function of speed

Example 3.8 A 3φ, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has the
following parameters per phase:

R1=0.25Ω R2’=0.2Ω

X1=X2’=0.5Ω Xm=30Ω

The rotation losses are 1700 w. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find

a.) i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage

ii) Starting torque

b.) i) Full-load slip

ii) Full-load current

iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current

iv) Full-load power factor

v) Full-load torque

vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load

c.) i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed

ii) Maximum torque developed

d.) How much external resistance per phase should be connected in the rotor
circuit so that the maximum torque occurs at start?

Solution

460
a) V1 = = 265.6 V / phase
3

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

At start S=1. The input impedance is

 r' 
jX m  2 + jx '2 
s
Z1 = r1 + x1 + '  =
r2
s
+ j x m + x '2 ( )
j30(0.2 + j0.5)
= 0.25 + j0.5 +
0.2 + j(30.5)
= 1.08∠66 Ω

265 .6
I st = = 245 .9 ∠ − 66°A
1.08∠66°

2 πN s 2 π × 1800
ωsyn = = = 188.5 rad / s
60 60

V1 jX m 266.5 × j 30.0
Vth = = = 261.3V
r1 + j (xm + x1 ) 0.25 + j 30.5

jX m ( R1 + jX 1 ) j30( 0.25 + j0.5 )

Z th = = = 0.55∠63.9°Ω
R1 + j( X 1 + X m ) 0.25 + j30.5
= 0.24 + j0.49 Ω
∴ Rth = 0.24 Ω ; X th = 0.49 Ω

2
3 V th R 2'
T st = ⋅ .
ω syn ( R th + R2 ) + ( X
' 2
th + X 2 )2 S
3 261 . 3 2 0 .2
= × × =
188 . 5 ( 0 . 24 + 0 . 2 ) + ( 0 . 49 + 0 . 5 )
2 2
1
= 185 . 2 N .m

b) At full-load

N s − N 1800 − 1740
S= = = 0.0333
Ns 1800

R2' 0.2
= = 6.01 Ω
s 0.0333

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

j30(6.01 + j0.5)
Z1 = 0.25 + j0.5 +
6.01 + j(30.5)
= 0.25 + j0.5 + 5.598 + j1.596
= 6.2123∠19.7 Ω

265.6
I FL = = 42.754 ∠ − 19.7°A
6.2123∠19.7 °

I st 245.9
iii) = = 5.75
I FL 42.754

iv) PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging

3 261 . 3 2
T FL = × 6 . 01
v) 188 . 5 ( 0 . 24 + 6 . 01 ) 2 + ( 0 . 49 + 0 . 5 ) 2
= 163 . 11 N . m

vi) Air gap power

Pag = Tωsyn = 163.11 × 188.5 = 30,746.2 W

Rotor copper loss:

P2 = sPag = 0.0333 × 30,746.2 = 1023.9 W

P2 = (1 − s )Pag = (1 − 0.0333) × 30,746.2 = 29,722.3 W

Pout = Pmech − Prot = 29 ,722.3 − 1700 = 28 ,022.3W

Pin = 3V1 I 1 cos θ1 = 3 × 265.6 × 42.754 × 0.94 = 32,022.4 W

Pout 28,022.3
ηmotor = = × 100 = 87.5%
Pin 32,022.4

ηint ernal = ( 1 − s ) = 1 − 0.0333 = 0.967 → 96.7%

c)

i) From Eq. 3.16

'
R
S = 2

[R ]
T max 1
2
th + (X th + X '
2 )2 2

0.2 0.2
= = = 0.1963
[0.24 2
+ (0.49 + 0.5)
2
]
1
2 1.0187

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

From Eq.1.17
2
3 Vth
Tmax = .
2 ω syn R + [ R 2 + ( X + X ' ) 2 ] 1 2
th th th 2

3  261 . 3 2 
=  
 [
2 × 188 .5  0 . 24 + 0 . 24 2 + (0 .49 + 0 .5 )2 ]1
2 

= 431 .68 N . m

Tmax 431.68
= = 2.65
TFL 163.11

d)

R '
+ R '
S T max = 1 = 2 ext

[R 2
th + ( X th + X '
2 )2 ] 1
2

R '2 + R 'ext R '2 + R '

= = ext

[0 . 24 2
+ (0 . 49 + 0 . 5 ) 2
2
]1
1 . 0187
R '
ext = 1 . 0187 − 0 . 2 = 0 . 8187 Ω

Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Calculation can be based on the equivalent circuit of Figure. 3.15 as follows:

Z1 = r1 + x1 + R e + jX e
= 0.25 + j0.5 + 5.598 + j1.596
3 2 3
T= I1 R e = × 42.754 2 × 5.598
ωsyn 188.5
= 163 N.m

8. INDUCTION MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM

The rotor m.m.f. F2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + θ2. The rotor
m.m.f. reacts on the stator and calls for a compensating load component of stator current
I2' such that load component of stator m.m.f. Fl' = rotor m.m.f. F2

or I '2 N1' = I 2 N '2

' N '2 N k
I2 = I2 = I 2 × 2 w2
' N1k w1
N1

Here N1' and N2′ are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In Figure
3.24 load component of m.m.f. F1' = I '2 N1' of the total stator m.m.f. Fl, is shown opposing
rotor m.m.f. F2. Similarly, load-component current I2', of the total stator current I1, is

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

shown opposite to rotor current I2. In Figure 3.24, per-phase rotor induced emf E2 lags Φ
by a time-phase angle of 90°.

θ2

Figure 3.24 pertaining to the induction motor phasor diagram

If hysteresis is neglected then air-gap flux Φ is in phase with the resultant air-gap m.m.f.
Fr. As in a transformer, the no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor does not differ from
resultant air-gap m.m.f. Fr. It is because of this reason that motor magnetizing current Im,
is shown in phase with Fr, in Figure 3.24. The phasor sum of Fl' and Fr gives the total
stator m.m.f. Fl. Similarly the phasor sum of stator-load component of current I2’and
motor magnetizing current Im gives the total stator current I1 as illustrated in Figure 3.24.
The stator (or the primary) induced emf El and rotor (or secondary) induced emf E2 are
shown lagging Φ by 90° as in transformer.

Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Figure 3.25(a), where
mmfs are not shown for the sake of clarity. At standstill, E2 is shown equal to I2 (r2 +
jx2). The core-loss component of stator current, i.e. Ic is in phase with Vl' or - E1. At
standstill, friction and windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is I 0 = I m + I c and
the stator load current is I1 = I '2 + I o . The stator applied voltage Vl must balance the stator
counter emf Vl' (= - E1) and the stator leakage impedance drop I1 (rl +jxl) as shown in
Figure 3.25 (a). The power factor angle θ1 (between V1 and Il) at the stator terminals is
very high, i.e. stator power factor is very poor at the time of starting a 3-phase
induction motor.

At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now becomes,
sE2 = I2 (r2 + jsx2) and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.25(b). In
this Figure, I 0 = I m + I fc , where Ifc, is the friction, windage and core-loss component
of stator current. The rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the same manner as
illustrated in Figure 3.24(a). Figure 3.25(b) reveals that full load power factor at the
stator terminals has considerably improved (0.8 to 0.9 lagging) from its power factor
at starting. In the phasor diagrams of Figures 3.24 and 3.25, all quantities have per-
phase values.

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

θ1
θ1
φ
φ
θ2 θ2

(a) (b)

Figure 3.25 Induction motor Phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b) a full-load slip s.

3.9. MODES OF OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION

MACHINES
The three phase induction machine has the following three modes or operating regions of
operations depending upon the values of slips:

a) Motoring Mode : 1<S>0

Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by the
stator currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at synchronous speed,
i.e. 1 < S > 0. The corresponding speed values are zero (S=1) and synchronous speed
(S=0).

b) Generating Mode: S < 0.

For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0. An induction motor will operate in
this region only when its stator terminals are connected to constant-frequency voltage
source and its rotor is driven above synchronous speed by prime mover. The connection
of stator terminals to voltage source is essential in order to establish the rotating air gap
field at synchronous speed. In case stator is disconnected from voltage source and rotor
is driven above synchronous speed by the prime mover, no generating action takes place.

c) Braking Mode: S > 1.

For this mode, slip is greater than 1. a slip more than one can be obtained by driving the
rotor , with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of rotating field. But such a use in
practice is rare. A practical utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to
a quick stop by braking action, called plugging. For obtaining S>1, or for obtaining
plugging, any two stator terminal leads are interchanged. With this the phase sequence is

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

reversed and, therefore, the direction of rotating magnetic field becomes suddenly
opposite to that of the rotor rotation. The electromagnetic torque T, now acting opposite
to rotor rotation, produces the braking action. Thus the motor can be quickly brought to
rest by plugging, but the stator must be disconnected from the supply before the rotor can
start rotate in the other direction.
All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2.0 to S=1.0; motor regions, S=1.0 to S=0
and generator region, S=0 to S=-1) are illustrated in Figure 3.26.
BRAKING MOTOR GENERATOR
REGION REGION REGION

Tmax

-NS 0 NS 2NS
Tmax

S=2 S=1 S=0 S=-1

Figure 3.26 torque-slip curve of an induction machine showing its braking, motor and generator
regions

3.10. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Steady-state operating characteristics of an induction motor show graphically the varia-
tion of speed, power factor, stator current and efficiency as the shaft power output is
varied from no-load to full load. For a given induction motor, the operating
characteristics are governed by its rotor resistance, air-gap length and shape of both
stator and rotor slots. The objective of this article is to describe the nature of the steady-
state operating characteristics of induction motors and to examine the factors that govern
them. Figure 3.27 illustrates typical operating characteristics of an induction motor. The
shape of these curves is now explained below.

Figure 3.27 operating characteristics of an induction motor

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

a.) Speed

At no load, the rotor speed is near to synchronous speed; therefore, the no-load slip is
very small. Also, the no-load torque, sufficient to overcome the loss-torque required by
friction and windage, is very low. As a result of small no-load torque, the rotor current or
the rotor m.m.f. F2 is also quite small and the load angle, is very near to 90°. As the
applied load torque is increased, electromagnetic torque T must increase accordingly-this
can happen only if rotor m.m.f. F2 and the load angle increase. In order that rotor m.m.f.
F2 or rotor current I2 increase, the rotor emf sE2 must increase or the slip must increase;
in other words the rotor speed must decrease as the load torque is increased. Here E2 is
the rotor emf per phase at standstill.

At no-load, rotor leakage reactance has little effect on the rotor leakage impedance,
because rotor frequency and sx2 are very small and load angle  90 + tan −1 sX 2  is very
 r 2 
near to 90°. When the slip increases with an increase in load, the rotor power factor angle
 sX 
θ2  = tan −1 2  increases and as a result of it, load angle (90 + θ2) is also increased.
 r2 
This shows that as the applied load torque is increased, the rotor speed falls and both the
rotor m.m.f. F2 and load angle increase to supply the required load torque. The fall in
speed from no load to full load is usually in the range of 2 to 5 percent of rated speed. In
view of this an induction motor can be said to possess shunt characteristics.

b.) Power factor:

The stator current of a three-phase induction motor is made up of the following three
components:

(i) Magnetizing current Im: This component lags stator voltage Vl by 90° as in a
transformer. Its function is to set up rotating magnetic field.

(ii) Stator-loss component Ic: This component supplies the stator iron loss and stator
copper loss as in a transformer.

(iii) Load component I’2: This component balances the rotor m.m.f. as in a transformer.

At no load, stator current Io is shown in Figure 3.28. The function of the third, i.e. load,
component of Io at no load is to supply friction and windage (F.W.) loss. (For a
transformer at no load, this third component is zero). The rotor power developed at no
load, is, therefore, equal to F.W. loss. As this loss is quite small, rotor current and
therefore load component is very small.

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

V1
' B
θ1' I 2
θ1
A
I '2

I0
O
φ
I2

I2 E2

E1

Figure 3.28 Improvement of power factor with increase in load

So the current due to the combination of second and third components is quite small. But
the magnetizing current Im forms a major component of Io due to the presence of air gap
in an induction motor. As a result, no-load current Io lags the stator voltage by an angle
θ0 in the range of 75° to 85°. Consequently, the stator power factor at no load may be as
low as 0.1 to 0.3, the lower values being applicable for large induction motors.

As the motor is loaded, the third, i.e. load, component of stator current rises above its no-
load value. The increment of load component of stator current above its no load value is
responsible for supplying the load torque. The stator-load component I2' given by when
added to Io, gives the stator current OA at a power factor of cosθ1. With further increase
of load on the motor, the rotor current increases and the stator-load component I2' when
added to Io gives the stator current OB at a power factor of cos θ1'. It is thus seen from
Figure 3.28 that the p.f. angle decreases and, therefore, the stator power factor improves
as the load on the motor is increased. The stator power factors of about 0.85 to 0.88 are
obtained at 80 to 90% of full-load outputs. If the motor is loaded beyond this load, power
factor decreases slightly because of the predominant effect of stator and rotor leakage
reactance drops.

c.) Efficiency:

As in other electrical machines, the induction machine losses are made up of fixed losses
(= core loss + friction and windage loss) and variable load losses. At no load, the shaft
power output is zero, therefore, efficiency is zero. At lower values of loads, the fixed
losses are more as compared with the output; efficiency is, therefore, low. As the load is
increased, the efficiency also rises and becomes maximum when fixed losses and
variable losses are equal. Maximum efficiency occurs at about 80 to 95% of rated output,
the higher values being applicable for larger motors. If the load is increased beyond the
load resulting in maximum efficiency, the load losses increase more rapidly than the
output, consequently the efficiency decreases.

d.) Stator current:

The no-load stator current is about 30 to 50% of rated current, the larger values being
applicable to smaller sizes. With the increase in load, the current rises correspondingly.

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

In the phasor diagram, the locus of the tips of stator current with increasing loads follows
a semi-circle and this leads to the induction motor circle diagram.

e.) Air gap:

In induction motors, for constant supply voltage, the air-gap flux remains substantially
constant. If the air-gap length is increased, then constant flux requires more magnetizing
current. This reduces the no-load power factor as well as the full-load power factor of the
induction motor. Therefore, in order that an induction motor operates at a better power
factor, the air-gap length is kept as small as is mechanically possible. Small air-gap
clearance in induction motors necessitates a heavier shaft and high-grade bearings than
are required for other types of rotating machines of the same rating and speed.

Open slots in an induction motor has the effect of increasing the air-gap length (1.10 to
1.20 times the actual air-gap length) as a result of which more magnetizing current is
required and the operating power factor of the motor is worsened. But an induction
motor with open slots has less leakage reactance and, therefore, more Tst, more Tmax etc.
Likewise induction motors with semi-closed slots or closed slots requires less
magnetizing current and, therefore, better operating power factor, but its Tst, Tmax etc are
reduced. In view of this, at the design stage, a compromise has to be made between Tst,
Tmax and the operating power factor of the induction motors.

3.11. DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

PARAMETERS
The equivalent circuit parameters of poly phase induction motors can be determined
from no load test, blocked-rotor test and stator winding dc resistance. The object of this
article is to describe the methods of determining the parameters from these tests.

3.11.1. No-load test (or running light test)

The induction motor is made to run at no load at rated voltage and frequency. Per phase
values of applied stator voltage Vnl, input current Inl and input power Pnl are recorded.

Figure 3.29 Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test

r2
The no-load slip S is very small, therefore in Figure 3.15 of IEEE recommended
s
equivalent circuit, is very large as compared to Xm. In view of this, the resultant of

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

r 
parallel branches jXm and  2 + jx 2  is almost equal to jXm as illustrated in Figure 3.30
s 
(a). Thus the no-load reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is equal to x1 + Xm, i.e.

Xnl = x1 + Xm = X1 3.26

Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.

From the instrument readings at no load, stator no-load impedance:

Vn 1
Z n1 =
I n1

And stator no-load resistance:

Pn1
Rn1 = 2
I n1
X n1 = Z nl − Rn1
2 2

∴ The rotational losses Prot (friction, windage loss and core loss) are usually assumed
constant and can be obtained from the relation.

PRot = m( Pnl − I nl2 R1 )

Where m is the number of stator phases and r1 is the per phase stator resistance

Thus the no-load test gives Xn1 and the rotational losses PR.

(a)

3.11.2. Blocked-rotor test

Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a transformer, is performed on the

induction motor to calculate its leakage impedance.

For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by external means, i.e. the rotor shaft
is held stationary by belt-pulley arrangement or by hand. Now balanced poly phase
voltages at rated frequency are applied to the stator terminals through a poly phase

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

variac. This applied voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in the stator winding. Per
phase values of applied voltage Vbr, input current (=rated current) Ibr and the input power
Pbr are recorded. Current Ibr may be affected by rotor position; in view of this the rotor
should be held in a position that gives Ibr equal to the mean of maximum and minimum
current value.

Measure the dc resistance per phase of the stator winding soon after this test and
multiply it by 1.1 to 1.3 in order to obtain the per phase effective stator resistance r1.

The equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor test is as shown in Figure.3.30 (b).

R1 X1 X2

Xm R2
Vbr
S

(b)

Figure 3.30 Induction motor equivalent circuits for (a) no-load test and (b) blocked-rotor test

From the instrument readings during blocked-rotor test, the parameters can be obtained
as under:

The blocked-rotor impedance

Vbr
Z br =
I br

and the blocked-rotor resistance,

P
Rbr = br
2
I br

∴Blocked-rotor reactance

X br = Z br 2 − Rbr 2

An examination of Figure 3.30 (b) reveals that the blocked-rotor impedance seen from
the stator terminals is given by

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

jX m ( r2 + jx 2 )
Z br = Rbr + jX br = r1 + jx1 +
r2 + j( x 2 + X m )
jX m ( r2 + jx 2 ) r2 − j ( x 2 + xm )
= r1 + jx1 + .
r2 + j ( x 2 + xm ) r2 − j ( x 2 + xm )
jX m [ r2 + jr2 x 2 − jr2 ( x 2 + X m ) + x 2 ( x 2 + X m ]
2

= r1 + jx1 +
r2 + ( x2 + X m )2
2

jX m [ r2 + x 2 X 2 − jr2 X m ]
2
or Rbr + jX br = r1 + jx1 + 3.27
r2 + X 22
2

Where X2 = x2 +Xm, is the rotor self-reactance.

Comparison of the imaginary components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) gives

X m [ r22 + x 2 X 2 ]
X br = x1 +
r 22 + X 22
 r22 
Xm  + x2 
 X 2 
= x1 +
r22
+ X2
X2

X 2 >> r2 , therefore r may be neglected. With this

2
Since 2

X2

X m x2 X m x2
X br = x1 + = x1 +
X2 X m + x2
x2
= x1 +
x
1+ 2
Xm

x2
Usually the magnetizing reactance Xm >> rotor leakage reactance x2, therefore X is
m
negligible small and this gives

Xbr = x1 +x2 3.28

There is no practical method of separating x1 and x2. For wound rotor machines x1 is
assumed equal to x2 i.e. x1 = x2= ½Xbr

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

For squirrel cage induction machines, total leakage reactance Xbr (=x1 +x2) can be
distributed between stator and rotor as per the following table:

Table 3.1: Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr

Fraction of Xbr
Class of motor X1 X2
Class A (normal Tst , high Ist and low slip) 0.5 0.5
Class B (normal Tst, low Ist and low slip) 0.4 0.6
Class C (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.3 0.7
Class D (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.5 0.5
Once x1 is known, then from Eq. (3.26), the stator magnetizing reactance is given by

Xm= Xnl –x1

Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) blocked-rotor resistance Rbr
as seen from the stator terminals is

X 2m
R br = r1 + r2
r22 + X 22

For machines of normal design, X2>> r2 therefore, r2 in the denominator can be neglected
as compared to X2

2
X 
R br = r2 + r2  m 
 X2 

∴ Per phase rotor resistance

2
X 
r2 = ( R br − r1 ) 2  3.29
 Xm 

Thus Xm from Eq. (3.26) r2 from Eq. (3.29), r1 form dc resistance per phase of stator
winding and x1, x2 from Eq. (3.28) and Table 3.1 can be determined from three tests. The
equivalent circuit can now be used for computing the motor performance.

Note: For large motors (above 20KW or so), if induction motor characteristics are
required near s =1 (e.g. for starting torque etc.); then since rotor frequency f2 is equal to
the line frequency, the blocked- rotor test should be carried out at line frequency and
with currents equal to those encountered at the time of starting.

In case induction motor characteristics are required near synchronous speed (e.g. during
normal operation), then rotor frequency is equal to sf1, therefore, the blocked-rotor test
should be carried out at reduced frequency and with normal currents.

3.11.3. Separation of friction and windage loss from the no-load test

The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to supply the stator copper loss,
core loss and friction and windage loss.

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

The dc resistance of the stator winding is measured and its per phase effective value r1 is
calculated from the relation.

r1 = (1.1 to 1.3) (dc resistance of one phase)

For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied voltage to the unloaded
induction motor is varied from 1.25 times the rated voltage to about 20% of the rated
voltage. The input power, current and voltage are recorded so that a graph can be plotted.
The speed, with reduction in voltage, will fall only slightly so that the friction and
windage loss remains substantially constant

From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic loss is subtracted
to obtain the core loss and friction and windage loss, i.e.
Prot = m( Pnl + I nl2 r1 )

Where, Pnl is the per phase power input,

Inl is the per phase stator current and

r1 is the effective per phase stator resistance.

The plot of the rotational loss Prot with variable stator voltage is shown in Figure 3.31.
The intercept of the extraplotted Prot curve with the ordinate gives the friction and
windage loss, because the core loss is zero for zero applied voltage.

Figure 3.31 Variation of rotational loss with voltage

In order to get a motor accurate value of mechanical loss (friction and windage loss),
rotational loss Prot should be plotted against (Voltage) 2. This plot of Prot with (voltage)2
is almost linear and, therefore, the extrapolation is easier.

Example 3.9 A 10-Kw , 400-V, 4-pole delta connected squirrel cage induction motor
gave the following test results:

No-load Test: 400-V , 8-A, 250-W

Blocked rotor Test: 90-V, 35-A, 1350-W

The dc resistance of the stator winding per phase measured after the blocked –rotor test
is 0.6Ω. Calculate the rotational losses and the equivalent circuit parameters.

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Solution

No-load rotational losses are

2
 8 
Prot = Pnl − 3I nl R 1 = 250 − 3
2
 × (0.6 × 1.20) = 203.92W
 3

Note that the effective stator resistance per phase is taken equal to 1.2 times its d.c.
value.

From no-load Test:

Vnl 400
Z nl = = = 86 .6 Ω
I nl  8 
 
 3
Pnl 250
R nl = = = 3 .91
3(I nl )
2 2

3 8 

 3
∴ X nl = Z 2nl − R 2nl = 86 . 6 2 − 3 .91 2 = 86 .51Ω

From blocked-rotor test:

Vbr 90
Z br = = = 4.45 Ω
I br  35 
 
 3
Pbr 1350
R br = = = 1.1Ω
3(I br )
2 2

3 35 

 3
∴ X br = Z 2br − R 2br = 4.452 − 1.12 = 4.32 Ω

1
∴ x1 = x 2 = X br = 2.158 Ω
2

X m = X nl − x 1 = 86.51 − 2.158 = 84.352 Ω

And
X 2 = X m + x 2 = 84.352 + 2.158 = 86.51 Ω

From eq.(3.29), per phase rotor resistance is given by

2
X 
r2 = ( R br − r1 ) 2 
 Xm 
2
 86.51 
= (1.102 − 0.6 × 1.2 )  = 0.402 Ω
 84.352 

Thus the parameters of the induction motor equivalent circuit are:

r1= 0.72Ω; r2= 0.402Ω; x1=x2=2.158Ω; and Xm=84.352Ω

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

3.12. SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency f and poles P by
the equation.

120 f
Ns =
p

As regards induction motor, the rotor is given by

N = (1 − s ) N s

Where S is the slip

It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of speed control of an
induction motor are:

a) by changing the number of poles and

b) by varying the line (input) frequency.

By the above two methods, the synchronous speed of an induction motor can only be
changed. These methods are applicable only to cage induction motors

The slip can be changed by the following methods.

c) by varying the input voltage

d) by varying the rotor resistance

The methods(c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motors, whereas
only the method (c) can be applied to machines with cage rotor.

a) by changing the number of poles (Pole changing methods)

Four-pole to eight –pole connections

In pole changing induction motors, the stator winding of each phase is divided into two
equal groups of coils. These coil groups are connected in series and parallel with the
current direction being reversed only in one group, to create two different numbers of
poles (even) in the ratio 2.1 respectively. When the connection is changed from series to
parallel or vice versa, the current in one group of coils is also reversed at the same time.
This technique, termed the consequent pole method, is applied to all three windings
(phases). This type of induction motor has always the squirrel cage rotor, which can
adapt to any number of stator poles.

Figure 3.32(a) shows schematically only four coils of one phase of the windings
connected in series, along with the direction of current in them, producing eight poles in
the stator. If the current in coils 2 and 4 is reversed and the connection is changed to
parallel with two coils (1 and 3, and 2 and 4) connected in series for each path, four poles

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

are formed in the stator (Figure 3.32(b)). It may be noted that the direction of current in
coils 1 and 3 remains the same. Only one type of connection is shown.

(a) Eight pole (Series)

(b) Four pole (parallel) consequent pole

Figure 3.32 Stator winding connection for pole changing induction motor

Normally, poles are changed in the ratio 2:1.This method provides two synchronous
speeds. If two independent sets of polyphase windings are used, each arranged for pole
changing, four synchronous speeds can be obtained for the induction motor. In many
industrial application induction motor with 4/6/8/12 poles are used to provide
1500/1000/750/500 synchronous speeds respectively. Squirrel-cage motors are
invariably used in this method because the rotor can operate with any number of stator
poles. It is obvious, however, that speed can be changed only in discrete steps and that
the elaborate stator winding makes the motor expensive.

Constant torque and constant horsepower operations

This type of pole changing in the stator results in constant torque or constant horsepower
operations. For constant torque operation, the change of stator winding is made from
series-star to parallel- star, while for constant horsepower operation the change is made
from series-delta to parallel-star. Regenerative braking takes place during changeover
from higher to lower speeds.

Constant torque opération: (Y/YY)

In any pole changing (P-pole/2P-pole) induction motor, there are two equal parts as
stated above. The changeover for constant torque operation takes place as shown in
Figure 3.33.

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

(a) Series-star (Y) connection (b)

( 2P-pole connection) Parallel-star (YY) connection
( P-pole connection)

Ns
Ns
2

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.33 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant
torque operation

Let V – Line voltage

I – Maximum current that the winding can carry

Then the power drawn from the supply is given by:-

1. For series-star (Y) connection ( Figure 3.33(a))

PY = 3 (VI cos φ Y )

2. For parallel-star connection (Figure 3.33(b))

PY Y = 2 3 (VI cos φ Y Y )

It is assumed that the power factor remains unchanged and the motor losses are
negligible. With the changeover of stator winding from series star to parallel star, the
power drawn from the supply is doubled. Simultaneously, the speed is also doubled. So
the motor torque remains constant. Constant torque operation is more common.

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

∆/YY)
Constant horsepower operation: (∆

The power drawn from the supply is given by:

1. For series-delta ( ∆) connection (Figure 3.34(a))

P∆ = 3 (VICosφ ∆ )

2. For parallel-star connection (Figure (3.34(b))

PY Y = 2 3 (VI Cos φYY ) = 3.46 (VI Cos φYY )

After changeover from series-delta to parallel-star, the power increases slightly (about
15%), if power factor is assumed to remain constant. The constant horsepower
connection is the most expensive, because in this case the motor size becomes the
largest.

(b) Parallel-star (YY) connection

(a) Series-delta (∆) connection
( P-pole connection)
( 2P-pole connection)

Ns Ns
2

(c) Torque-speed characteristics

Figure 3.34 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant
power operation

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

b) by varying the line (input) frequency)

A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed control of induction
motors.

Constant Volt/Hz operation

The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by

E = 4.44 Φ m f T ph K w

The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting drop in stator
impedance). Then, we can write

V
f
= 4.44 Φ m T ph K (V Hz )
When the frequency is reduced, the applied voltage also must be reduced proportionally
so as to maintain constant flux, otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in
excessive iron losses and magnetizing current. The maximum torque also remains
constant under this condition. However, the voltage is not varied proportionally in the
lower frequency range to account for the voltage drop in the winding resistance. This
type of control (constant V/f) is used for speed control below base frequency (line
frequency of 50Hz).

As the voltage increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes above base
frequency, only constant (rated) voltage with variable frequency (frequency control) is
used for speed control. Under this condition, both flux and maximum torque decrease as
the frequency is increased.

Advantages of constant volt/Hz operations are the following:

a) Smooth speed control,

b) Small input current and improved power factor at low frequency start, and

c) Higher starting torque for low cage resistance

Maximum Torque

Neglecting the stator winding resistance, the maximum torque is

3V 2
Tmax ≈
2ωsyn (X1 + X '2 )

So, the maximum torque remains constant as stated earlier for constant volt/Hz ratio for
frequencies below base frequency, except for very low values of frequency (Figure
3.35). This is taken as constant torque control with constant flux or volt/Hz ratio.

For input frequency above base frequency, only constant (input) voltage with variable
frequency is applied as stated earlier. In this case the maximum torque changes to

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

2
3 V
T max =
2 ω syn (X 1 + X 2 )  α 
'

supply frequency
Where, α=
base frequency

With α >1 as frequency is higher than base frequency, both maximum torque and flux, as
given by volt/Hz ratio, decrease as frequency increases (as shown in Figure 3.34). This is
taken as constant power control with variable flux.

Figure 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –frequency

control

The torque-speed characteristic of the load is superimposed on the motor torque-speed

characteristic. Note that the operating speeds N1…N7 are close to corresponding
synchronous speeds. In this method of speed control, therefore, the operating slip is low
and the efficiency is high.

The operating slip can be changed by

c) Varying the line voltage

Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square of
the terminal voltage. A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages
is shown in Figure 3.36.

Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower speeds, making the
operation inefficient. However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in which torque
varies approximately as the square of the speed, the power decreases significantly with
decrease in speed. Therefore, although the power lost in the rotor circuit (= sPag) may be
a significant portion of the air gap power, the air gap power itself is small and therefore
the rotor will not overheat. The voltage controller circuits are simple and, although
inefficient, are suitable for fan, pump, and similar centrifugal drives.

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

TL = N 2

Figure 3.36 Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages

d) Varying the rotor resistance

The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by connecting external

resistance in the rotor circuit through slip-rings. The torque- speed characteristics for
four external resistances are shown in Figure 3.37. The load torque-speed characteristic
is also shown by dashed line. By varying the external resistance 0 < Rex < Rex4, the speed
of the load can be controlled in the range of N1 < N < N5. Note that by proper adjustment
of the external resistance (Rex=Rex2), maximum starting can be obtained for the load.

3φ

Figure 3.37 the torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances

The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency is
low at reduced speed because of higher slips. However, this control method is often
employed because of its simplicity. In application where low-speed operation is only a
small proportion of the work, low efficiency is acceptable. A typical application of the
rotor, resistance control method is the hoist drive of a shop crane. This method also can
be used in fan or pump drives, where speed variation over a small range near the top
speed is required.

3.13. STARTING OF IM
Most induction motors-Large and Small-are rugged enough that they could be started
across the line without incurring any damage to the motor windings, although about five
to eight times the rated current flows through the stator at rated voltage at standstill.
However, in large induction motors, large starting current are objectionable in two
respects:

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

• First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently large
capacity.

• Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may be
excessive, resulting in reduced voltage across the motor.

Because the torque varies approximately as the square of the voltage, the starting torque
may become small at the reduced line voltage that the motor might not even start on
load. Thus we formulate the basic requirement for starting:

• The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the
extent that the motor can develop sufficient torque to start (on load , if necessary)

A number of methods is available of for starting both cage-rotor and wound-rotor

motors:

.13.1. Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors

For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of starting depends on (i) size and
design of the motor (ii) capacity of the power lines and (iii) type of the driven load.
There are primarily two methods of starting squirrel-cage induction motors: (a) full-
voltage starting and (b) reduced-voltage starting. The full-voltage starting consists of
DOL starting only. The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of reducing the
starting current, but it produces an objectionable reduction in the starting torque, on
account of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most popular method of starting three-phase
squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of stator resistor (or reactor) starting, auto-
transformer starting and star-delta starting. The various methods are now described in
what follows.

a. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting.

As the name suggests, this method involves the direct switching of polyphase stator on to
the supply mains. The motor takes low-power factor starting current of 5 to 8 times its
full-load current, depending upon its size and design. Such large currents of short
duration don't harm the rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents may cause
objectionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding the induction motor. These
large voltage drops cause undesirable dip in the supply line voltage; consequently the
operation of other equipments connected to the same supply line is effected
considerably. A common example is the momentary dimming of lamp and tube-lights in
the home at the instant a refrigerator motor starts. If the supply system is of sufficient
power capacity and the low-power factor starting-current surges don't cause
objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then the direct-on-line starting
should be preferred.

The relation between starting torque Tst and full-load torque Tfl is now obtained. Let Ist
and Ifl be the per-phase stator currents drawn from the supply mains corresponding to
starting and full-load conditions respectively. From Torque equation

1 R2
T mech =
2
.I2
ω syn S

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

R2
I 22st ⋅ 2

∴
Tst
= 1 =  I 2st 
 ⋅ Sfl 3.30
Tfl R I
I 22 fl ⋅ 2  2 fl 
Sfl

Eq. (3.30) is valid in case rotor resistance remains constant. Actually, rotor resistance
varies with the frequency of rotor current; at starting rotor frequency is 50 Hz and at full
load it is only a few hertz.

Here I2st and I2fl are the per-phase rotor currents at starting and full-load conditions
respectively.

If no-load current is neglected, then

Ist × effective stator turns = I 2st × effective rotor turns

or I st = I 2st × (effective rotor to stator turns ratio )

I st (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio )I 2st

or =
I fl (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio )I 2fl

I st I 2st
or =
I fl I 2 fl
2
Tst  I st 
From equation (1.30), =   ⋅ Sfl
Tfl  I fl 

If V1 is the per phase stator voltage and ZSC is the standstill per phase leakage impedance
referred to stator, then per phase short-circuit current at standstill (or at starting) is,

V1
I sc =
Zsc

Where,
Zsc = (R 1 + R 2 ) + j(X1 + X 2 )

Note that here shunt branch of the induction motor equivalent circuit is neglected.

Therefore, for direct switching,

V1
I st = I sc =
Zsc

Equation (3.30) can, therefore, be written as

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

2
Tst  I sc 
=  ⋅ Sfl
Tfl  I fl 
3.31

b. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting

In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in between motor terminals and the
supply mains, as illustrated in Figure 3.38.

1
xV
3V1 3xV1
Rotor

V1
xV1

Figure 3.38 Reactor (or resistor) starting of squirrel cage induction motor

At the time of starting, some voltage drop occurs across the starting resistor or reactor
and, therefore, only a fraction x (less than 1) of the supply voltage appears across the
stator terminals. This reduces the per-phase starting current Ist drawn by the motor from
the supply mains. As the motor speeds up, the reactor is cut out in steps and finally short-
circuited when the motor speed is near to its operating speed. Since per phase voltage is
reduced to xV1, see Figure 3.38 , the per-phase starting current Ist is given by

xV1
I st = = xI SC 3.32
Z SC
2
Tst  I st 
As before = ⋅ S fl
T fl  I fl 

2
Tst I 
Or = x 2  sc  ⋅ Sfl 3.33
Tfl  I fl 

In an induction motor, torque ∝ (voltage) 2

2
Starting torque with reactor or resistor starting  xV1 
∴ =   = x 2 3.34
Starting torque with direct starting  V1 

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower energy loss
and is more effective in reducing the voltage, because the induction-motor power factor
at starting is quite low.

c. Autotransformer starting

A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V1 is applied to the stator terminals at the time of
starting, by means of an autotransformer as shown in Figure 3.39.

Figure 3.39 pertaining to auto-transformer starting of squirrel cage induction motor

This reduces the motor current and also the current drawn from the supply. After the
motor has accelerated near to its operating speed, auto-transformer is disconnected and
full line voltage is applied to the induction motor by connecting it directly across the
supply mains. Note that here x is less than 1. With autotransformer, per phase starting
current in motor winding is

xV1
= = x I sc 3.35
Z1

If no-load current of autotransformer is neglected, then per phase output VA of an

autotransformer must be equal to its per phase input VA. That is

I stV1 = xV1 (per phase starting current in motor winding)

Or I st V1 = xV1 (x I sc )

∴ Per phase starting current from the supply mains,

I st = x 2 .I sc 3.36

Eq. (3.35) shows that the motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x times the
direct switching current Isc ; but the per phase starting current from the supply mains is
reduced to x2 times the direct switching Isc .

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Now

Tst (per phase starting current in motor winding) 2

= .S fl
Tfl (per phase motor full − load current) 2

From Eq.(1.35)

Tst (xIsc )2
= .Sfl
Tfl 2
I fl

=x 2 (Isc )2 .S 3.37
2 fl
I fl

Per phase staring current, Ist, from the supply mains can be calculated in Eq. (3.37) with
the help of Eq. (3.36). Substitution of the value of Isc in terms of Ist gives
2
Tst  1 I 
= x 2  2 ⋅ st  .S fl
T fl x I 
 fl 
2
I 
= x  st  .S fl
2
I  3.38
 fl 

The ratio of the starting to full-load torque in terms of both Ist and Isc can be obtained
from Eq. (3.37) as follows.

Tst (x 2 I sc )I sc
= .S fl
T fl I 2fl

I st I sc
= ⋅ S fl 3.39
I 2fl

Per phase motor starting current in terms of Ist, from Eq. 3.35, is given by

1
x I sc = x ⋅ I st
x2
1 3.40
= I st
x
For an induction motor, torque ∝ (voltage) 2

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

2
Tst with an autotransformer  xV1 
=   = x 2 3.41
Tst with direct switching  V1 

It is from above that with an autotransformer, the starting current Ist from the mains and
the starting torque Tst are reduced to x2 times their corresponding values with DOL
starting, see Eqs (3.36) and (3.41).

d. Star-Delta Method

A Star-Delta method starting may also be employed to provide reduced voltage of start.
In this method, the normal connection of the stator windings is delta while running
(Figure 3.40).

Figure 3.40 pertaining to the star-delta starting of a 3-phase cage induction motor

If these windings are connected in star at start, the phase voltage is reduced, resulting in
less current of starting. As the motor approaches its full-speed, the windings will be
connected in delta.

Thus, the line current under each of these connection are:

Vph VL
IY = = with the windings connected in Star ;
Z ph 3 Z ph
VL
I∆ = 3 with the windings connected in Deta
Z ph

So that the ratio of the current is

I V Z
Y = L ph 1
⋅ =
I 3Z 3V 3
∆ ph L

Showing that the current drawn from the line under a star connection is only one-third
( 1 3 ) of that under delta connection. On the other hand, the ratio of the current in the
stator windings is

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

V ph
I ph Y Z ph 1
= =
I ph ∆ 3 V ph 3
Z ph
2
 VL 
 
Also Tst with Star − Delta Starter  3 1
= 2
=
Tst with direct switching in Delta VL 3

This shows the star-delta starter also reduce the starting torque to one-third of that
produced by direct switching in delta.

Example 3.10 A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current
at rated voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer starter
which should give full-load at start. Also find the line current at starting in terms of full-load
current.

Solution

Here , motor starting or short-circuit current Isc is 6Ifl.

2
Tst I 
= x 2  sc  .S fl
T fl I 
 fl 

∴ 1 = x 2 × 6 2 × 0.05
1
x= = 0.745
Or 1 .8
or 74.5% tappings

The starting line current is

I st = x 2 I sc = 0.745 2 × 6 I fl
= 3.33 I fl

Example 3.11 A small 3-phase induction motor has a short-circuit current 5 times of full
load current and full load slip 5%. Determine the starting torque and starting current if
starting resistance starter is used to reduce the impressed voltage to 60% of normal
voltage.
Solution
Starting current,
I st = 0.6I SC = 0.6 × 5I fl = 3I fl
Starting torque,
2
I 
Tst = Tfl  st  ⋅ Sfl = Tfl (3) × 0.05 = 0.45Tfl i.e. 45% of full load torque.
2

 Ifl 

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

3.13.2. Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors

The methods used for starting squirrel cage motors can also be employed for starting
wound-rotor motors, but it is usually not done so because then the advantages of wound-
rotor induction motors can't be fully realized. The simplest and cheapest method of
starting wound-rotor induction motors is by means of added rotor resistance, with full-
line voltage across the stator terminals. It has already been discussed that at the time of
start, the addition of external resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction
motor.

i. decreases its starting current

ii. increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and

iii. Improves its starting power factor.

At the time of start, the entire external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. As the
rotor speeds up, the external resistance is decreased in steps so that motor torque tends to
remain maximum during the accelerating period. Finally, under normal operation, the
external resistance is fully cut off and the slip rings are short-circuited so that motor now
develops full-load torque at low value of slip for which it is designed.

Calculation of Resistance of elements (or sections)

Consider one phase of the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r2 and
standstill leakage reactance x2. Let R1, R2 ,R3 …….Rn be resistance of the n resistance
elements (or sections) and R1’ , R2’, R3’,….Rn’, Rn+1’ be the total resistance in each
phase of the rotor circuit on 1st ,2nd ,3rd ,…,nth and (n+1)th stud respectively as shown in
Figure 3.40(a) , such that

R1 = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2

R2 = R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2

R3 ’ = R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2

Rn+1 = r2.

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.41 (a) pertaining to the design of starter for wound-rotor IM; (b) Variation of input
current with time

Note that Figure 3.41(a) illustrates n-elements starter, n-section starter, (n+1) stud starter
or n-step starter. For calculation of the section resistances, the following assumptions are
made:

i. During starting time , a constant load torque is assumed

ii. The stator leakage impedance and its no-load current are neglected

iii. Stator current is taken to fluctuate between fixed limits I1max (maximum value)
and I1min (minimum value) as shown in Figure 3.41(b).

At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor circuit resistance is R1’.
When the supply is switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I1max and its
value is given by

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

V1
I 1 max = 3.42
2
 R 1' 
  + x 2
 S1 

Note that at the time of start, slip S1 = 1

On first stud, R1’ remains in the circuit until the motor has started and the current has
fallen from I1max to I1min . At the same time the slip falls from S1 to S2

V1
∴ I 1 min = 3.43
2
 R1' 
  + x 2
 S2 

As soon as I1min is reached at stud 1, resistance R1 is cut out by moving the handle from
stud 1 to stud 2. During the notching process (the process of moving the handle from one
stud to the next), the speed is assumed to remain constant, i.e. the slip remains as S2 but
current at stud 2 becomes I1max as illustrated in Figure 3.41(b).

V1
∴ I 1max = 3.44
2
R 
'
  + x 2
2

 S2 

At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip becomes S3 and current decreases to I1min,

V1
∴ I 1 min = 3.45
2
R 
'
  + x 2
2

 S3 

During the next notching process, i.e., at the third stud when R2 is cut out,

V1
∴ I 1 max = 3.46
2
 R3' 
  + x 2
 S3 
and

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Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

V1
∴ I1 min = . 3.47
2
 R '3 
  + x2
 S4 
 
⋮
⋮
and so on

From Eqs. (3.42), (3.44), (3.46) etc, we get

V1
I1 max =
2
 R 1' 
  + x2
 S1 
 
V1
=
2
 R '2 
  + x2
 S2 
 
V1
= = ................
2
 R '3 
  + x2
 S3 
 

From the above it follows that

R1' R '2 R '3

= =
S1 S2 S3
3.48
R' R' r
= ......... = n = n +1 = 2
S n Sn +1 Sfl

Where Sfl = Sn+1 is the slip under normal operating conditions when all external
resistance in rotor circuit is reduced to zero and the input current is I1max .

From Eqs. (3.43), (3.45), (3.47), etc., we get

R1' R2' R3'

= =
S 2 S3 S4
3.49
Rn' −1 Rn' Rn'
= ......... = = =
S n S n +1 S fl

From Eq. (3.48), we get

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

S 2 S3 S 4
= =
S1 S 2 S3
S S S
= ...... = n = n +1 = fl
S n −1 Sn Sn
R '2 R '3 R '4
= = =
R 1' R '2 R '3
R 'n −1 R 'n
= ....... = =
R 'n − 2 R 'n −1
R 'n +1 r
= = 2 = α (say) 3.50
R 'n R 'n

Since the slip S1=1, the total resistance in rotor circuit on the first step (or first stud) from
Eq. (3.48), is

S1 r
R1' = r2 = 2 3.51
S fl S fl

From Eq. 3.50,

R '2 = R1' α , R '3 = R '2 α = R '2 α 2

R '4 = R '3α = R '2 α 2 = R1' α 3
⋮
R 'n +1 = R1' α n
or r2 = R1' α n
3.52

Substituting the values of R1’ from Eq. (3.51) in Eq. (3.52), we get
r 
r2 =  2 α n
 Sfl 
or α n = Sfl
1
or α = (Sfl )n 3.53
Therefore, resistances of the sections are:

R 1 = R 1' − R '2 = R 1' (1 − α ) 3.54

R '2 = R '2 − R '3
= R '2 (1 − α) = αR 1' (1 − α ) = αR 1
R 3 = R '3 − R '4 = R '3 (1 − α)
= αR '2 (1 − α ) = α 2 R 1

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

Similarly

R 4 = α3R 1
⋮
R n = αn −1R1 3.55

The slip Sfl provided I1max=Ifl. In case I1max is different from Ifl, slip Sfl should be
calculated accordingly and then from Eq. (3.53), α can be obtained. Once R1’is
determined by using Eq.(3.51), first the resistance element R1 is obtained by using
Eq.(3.54) and then R2, R3, R4……. Can be calculated from Eq. (3.55).

Example 3.13 Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-
phase, 400-V, wound-rotor induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum
starting current is limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.015-Ω.

Solution

For a 4-step starter, there are 4-sections i.e. n=4.

Here, Sfl=3%=0.03
1 1
α = ( S fl ) = 0.03 = 0.416
n 4

The total resistance of rotor circuit at the moment of starting

r2 0.015
R1' = = = 0.5 Ω
S fl 0.03

The resistances of various elements are:

R1=R1’(1-α)= 0.5(1-0.416)=0.292 Ω

R2=αR1=0.416 x 0.292 = 0.121 Ω

R3=α2R1=αR2=0.416 x 0.121 = 0.051Ω

R4=α3R1=α2R2=αR3=0.416 x 0.051 = 0.021Ω

Checking :

R’1=R1+R2+R3+R4+r2 =0.292+0.121+0.051+0.021+0.015= 0.5 Ω

3.14. APPLICATIONS OF POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

For loads requiring low starting torques and substantially constant speeds, squirrel-
cage induction motor is the best choice, because of its ruggedness, simplicity, low
cost and reduced maintenance charges. Squirrel cage motor may be designed with
low rotor resistance or with high rotor resistance. As stated before, a high rotor
resistance gives better starting conditions but poor running performance. On the

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 Introduction to Electrical Machines

other hand, a cage motor with low rotor resistance gives poor starting conditions
but better running performance. In view of this, the rotor-circuit resistance should
be chosen judiciously at the design stage so that there is a compromise between its
starting conditions and running performance.

Squirrel cage motors with relatively low rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 5%) are
used for fans, centrifugal pumps, most machinery tools, wood-working tools etc.
Cage motors with relatively high rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 7%) are used
for compressors, crushers, reciprocating pumps. Squirrel cage motors with still
higher values of rotor-circuit resistance (full-load slip 7 to 16%) are used for
intermittent loads like punching presses, shears, hoists, elevators etc.

A wound-rotor induction motor is used for loads requiring severe starting

conditions or for loads requiring speed control. A wound rotor induction motor is
more expensive than a squirrel cage motor and also it requires more maintenance
because of the brushes and slip rings. A wound-rotor motor, also called slip-ring
motor, may be used for hoists, cranes, elevators, compressors etc.

The relative advantages of cage motor over a wound-rotor motor of the same power
rating are given below.

i) A cage rotor requires considerably less conductor material than a wound rotor,
consequently I2 R loss in cage rotor is less. Therefore, cage motor is a little more
efficient than a wound-rotor motor.

ii) Wound-motor construction requires slip rings, brushes, short-circuiting

devices etc. As a result of it, a wound-rotor motor is costlier than a cage induction
motor.

iii) A squirrel-cage rotor has very small length of overhang; therefore, it has low
rotor overhang leakage flux. This has the effect of resulting in low leakage reactance
x2 for a cage rotor than for a wound rotor. Consequently, the diameter of circle
diagram for a cage motor is greater than for a wound-rotor motor. This shows that a
cage motor has more pull-out torque, greater maximum power output and better
operating power factor as compared to a wound-rotor induction motor.

iv) Cage motor is more rugged and requires no slip rings, brushes etc. therefore,
its maintenance charges are low.

v) Cage rotor can be cooled better because of its bare end-rings.

The disadvantages of cage motor as compared to a wound rotor motor are its small
starting torque for very large starting current and its poor starting power factor. In
addition to it, the total energy lost during starting of cage motor is much more than
with the wound-rotor motor and this fact is very important where frequent starting of
large number of motors is required.

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 Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles

PROBLEMS ON INDUCTION MACHINES

3.1. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, 7.5 kw induction motor runs at 1,440 rpm. Determine: i)
the slip, ii) the slip-speed. Ans.i) 0.04 ; ii) 60 r.p.m
3.2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 rpm. For this
motor , calculate the following:
a) Number of poles
b) Full-load slip and rotor frequency
c) Speed of stator field with respect to
i. Stator structure and
ii. Rotor structure and
d) Speed of rotor field with respect to
i. Rotor structure
ii. Stator structure
iii. Stator field
Ans. a) 4; b) 4% & 2Hz; c)1500rpm; 60rpm; d) 60rpm; 1500rpm; 0

3.3. A 3-phase, 4-pole alternator driven at 1500 rpm is supplying an induction motor
which has full load speed of 960 r.p.m: Determine (i) the number of poles and (ii) the
percentage slip. Ans.i) 6 ;
ii) 4%

3.4. A 4-pole, 50Hz induction motor runs at 415 rpm Deduce the frequency of the
curree rotor windings and the slip. Ans. 1.584 Hz ; 3.167%

3.5. A 4-pole. 50Hz induction motor has an emf in the rotor, the frequency of which is
2 Hz. Determine (i) the synchronous speed (ii) the slip iii) the speed of the motor.

Ans.i)1500rpm;ii) 4%; iii) 1440 r.p.m

3.6. A 200-Kw, 3300-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz star-connected slip-ring induction motor has a
star connected rotor. Stator to rotor turns ratio is 3.2.rotor resistance and leakage
reactance are 0.1-Ω and 1-Ω respectively. Neglecting stator impedance ,find

a) Current and torque at starting on rated voltage with slip-rings short circuited
and

b) The external resistance required to reduce the starting current to 50-A with
across-the line starting. Compare starting torque under these conditions.

Ans. a)185.14A; 1005.5N.m b) 35.681Ω ; 3.484Ω; 2628.8 N.m

3.7. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 1440 rpm, 50 Hz induction motor has star connected rotor
winding , having a resistance of 0.2Ω per phase and a standstill leakage resistance of 1Ω

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per phase. When the stator is energized at rated voltage and frequency, the rotor induced
emf at standstill is 120-V per phase.

a) Calculate the rotor current, rotor power factor and torque both at starting and
at full-load and compare these results.

b) If an external resistance of 1Ω per phase is inserted in rotor circuit, calculate

rotor current, rotor power factor and torque at the time of starting.

Ans. a) at starting:117.67A; 0.196 lagging; 52.36N.m. and at full-load: 23.53 A ; 0.98

lagging; 52.87 N.m. b) at starting: 76.82 A ; 0.768 lagging; 135.25 N.m.

3.8. In s 6-pole, 3-phase. 50Hz induction motor with a star-connected rotor, the rotor
resistance per phase is 0.3Ω, the reactance at standstill is 1.5Ω per phase, and the emf
between slip rings on open circuit is 175 V. Calculate :

(i) slip (ii) rotor emf per phase (iii) rotor reactance per phase if full load speed is
960rpm. Ans.(i) 4% (ii) 4.05 V (iii) 0.06Ω

3.9. A 50 Hz, 8-pole induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. The rotor resistance
and standstill reactance are 0-01Ω and 0.1Ω per phase respectively. Find the ratio of
maximum to full load torque and the speed at which the maximum torque occurs.
Ans.1.45; 675 rpm

3.10. An induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.02Ω and a standstill reactance of
0.1Ω. How much external resistance must be added in the rotor circuit so as to get the
maximum torque at starting. Ans. 0.08 Ω

3.11. For an induction motor, the starting torque is 1.6 times the full load torque and the
rnaximum torque is 2 times the full load torque. Determine the percentage reduction in
the rotor circuit resistance so that the full load slip is 0.04%. Neglect the stator
impedance. Ans.70%

3.12. A 3-phase induction motor is fed with a power of 48 kw. If the stator losses are 1.2
kw, find the mechanical power developed and copper losses in the rotor, when the slip is
3%. Ans. 45.396kW; 1.404kW

3.13. The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor running at
975 rpm is 40kW . The stator losses are 2 kw and the friction and windage losses total 2
kw. Calculate (i) the slip (ii) the copper loss (iii) the output power and (iv) the efficiency.
Ans. i) 2.5%; ii) 950W; iii) 35.05kW ; iv) 87.6%

3.14. A 20Kw, 6-pole, 400V, 50Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.02.
If the torque lost in mechanical (friction & windage) form constitutes about 20 N.m.,
find the rotor ohmic loss, motor input and efficiency. The total stator losses are 900
Watts. Ans. 450W; 23.4kW; 85.47%

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3.15. A 3-phase , 400 V, 50Hz star-connected induction motor gave the following test
results:
No load: 400 V, 7.5A, 0.135 power factor
Blocked rotor: 150 V, 35A, 0.44 power factor
The ratio of standstill leakage reactance of stator and rotor is estimated as 2. If the motor
is running at a speed of 900rpm, determine
a) Net mechanical power output
b) The net torque and
c) Efficiency of the motor
Assume stator to rotor copper losses to be equal.

Ans. Psh=8648.98 W; Tsh=86.033 N.m;η= 86.23%

3.16. Design the 5-sections of a 6-stud starter for a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor.
The full-load slip is 2% and the maximum starting current is limited to twice the full-
load current. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.03-Ω.

Ans. 0.356 Ω; 0.187 Ω; 0.098 Ω; 0.052 Ω;0.027 Ω

3.17. A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current
at rated voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer
starter which should give full-load at start. Also find the line current at starting in terms
of full-load current. Ans. 74.5%; 3.33 Ifl

3.18. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a short-circuit current of 5 times the
full-load current. Its full-load slip is 5%. Calculate the starting torque as percentage of
full-load torque if the motor is started by
a) Direct-on-line starter
b) Start-delta and
c) Auto-transformer starter, limiting the motor starting current to twice the
motor full-load current.
d) What is the percentage auto-transformer tapping under (c) case?
Ans. a) 1.25%; b) 0.417; c) 0.20; d) 40%

3.19. Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase, 400-V,
wound-rotor induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum starting current
is limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.015-Ω.

Ans. 0.291 Ω; 0.121 Ω; 0.051 Ω; 0.021 Ω

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