Chapter Three Induction Machines: Electromechanical Conversion
Uploaded by
tsegayChapter Three Induction Machines: Electromechanical Conversion
Uploaded by
tsegayCHAPTER THREE
INDUCTION MACHINES
ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
Three electrical Machines (dc, induction & synchronous) are used extensively for
electromechanical energy conversion. In these machines, conversion of energy results from the
following two electromagnetic phenomena.
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is induced in the conductor:
(generator action)
When a current –carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force (Motor action)
Electrical Mechanical
system ELECTRICAL system
MACHINES
E, I T, n
Motor
Generator
Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion
Note that the two systems in Figure 3.1, electrical and mechanical, are different in nature. In
electrical system the primary quantities involved are voltage & current while in mechanical
system, the analogous quantities are torque & speed. The coupling medium between these
different systems is the magnetic field.
The basic electrical machines (induction, dc, and synchronous), which depend on
electromagnetic energy conversion, are extensively used in various power ratings. The operation,
construction and characteristic features of these machines are discussed in detail in this and other
chapters.
INTRODUCTION
The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in industry. The
induction machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and separated from the stator by
an air gap. However, in the induction machine both stator winding and rotor winding carry
alternating current. The alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator winding machine.
The induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it is seldom
used as a generator supplying electrical power to a load. The performance characteristics as a
generator are not satisfactory for most applications. The induction machine is extensively used as
a motor in many applications.
Of all the a.c motors the poly-phase induction motor is the one which is extensively used for
various kinds of industrial drives. It has the following main advantages and also some
disadvantages.
1
Advantages:
It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction (especially squirrel
cage type)
Its cost is low and it is very reliable
It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes are needed, hence
frictional losses are reduced.
It has a reasonably good power factor
it requires minimum of maintenance
It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be synchronized. Its
starting arrangement is simple especially – for squirrel- cage type motor.
Disadvantage
Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load
Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a d.c shunt motor
The induction motor is used in various sizes:
Large three-phase induction motors (in tens or hundreds of horsepower) are used in
pumps, fans, compressors, paper mills, textile mills and so forth.
Small single-phase induction motors (in fractional horsepower rating) are used in many
household appliances, such as blenders, lawn mowers, juice mixers, washing machines,
refrigerators, and stereo turntables.
The linear version of the induction machine has been developed primarily for use in
transportation systems.
The induction machine is undoubtedly a very useful electrical machine. Two-phase induction
motors are used primarily as servomotors in a control system. Three-phase induction motors are
the most important ones and are most widely used in industry. In this unit the constructional
features, operation, stator windings, characteristic futures, and steady- state performance of the
three-phase induction machine are studied in detail.
3.1 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This type of
motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The stator and rotor do the work, and the
enclosure protects the stator and rotor.
a) Stator
The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel and is built up of sheet steel
lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness. Laminations are insulated from each other by means of
varnish coating or oxide (Figure 3.2(a)). A three-phase winding is put in slots punched out on the
inner surface of the stator frame. It is made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to
receive the windings. The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is
wound for a definite number of poles, the number of poles being determined by the requirements
2
of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator windings, when
supplied with 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but
120. f
which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed (given by N s ). This revolving magnetic
P
flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual induction.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 induction machine laminations (a)Stator and (b)rotor
b) Rotor
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out on the outer
surface (Figure 3.2 (b). The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a result thicker
laminations can be used without excessive iron losses. Two types of rotor construction is
normally used for three phase induction motor.
Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some motors, like the one
shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also mounted on the rotor shaft, to cool the motor
when the shaft is rotating.
I. Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage
induction motors.
II. Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are variously known
as phase-wound motors or wound motors or slip-ring motors.
Squirrel –Cage Rotor
Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type ‘rotor' has the
simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible. The squirrel cage
rotor is so called because its construction is reminiscent of the rotating exercise wheels found in
some pet cages. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying
the rotor conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consist of heavy bars of
copper, aluminum or alloys. One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the
end when semi-closed slots are used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted to
two heavy and stout short circuiting end-rings.
It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves, hence it is
not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting purposes.
3
Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM
1.Shaft ; 2. Ball bearings; 3. Bearings shield; 4. Terminal box ; 5. Fan (ventilator) ; 6. Ball bearings; 7. Bearings
shield;8. Ventilator shield ; 9. Rotor core; 10. Stator core; 11. Frame; 12. Basement
Aluminum
ring
Shaft
Shaft
Fan
blades
Laminated
iron core
Fan
Aluminum
bars
blades b)
a)
Figure 3.4 a) Real squirrel cage rotor and b) Schematic diagram of cage rotor
The rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the shaft but are purposely give a slight skew. This
is useful in two ways:
i) it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
ii) it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the rotor
teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the
two.
In small motors, another method of construction is used. It consists of placing the entire rotor
core in a mould and casting all the bars and end-rings in one piece. The metal commonly used is
an aluminum alloy.
Phase –Wound Rotor
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding consisting of coils
as used in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is
always wound 3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase.
4
Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction machine
1.Ball bearings 2. Bearings shield 3. Enclosure; 4.Stator core with windings 5.Rotor core
6.Bearings shield 7.Ball bearings; 8.Shaft ; 9.Terminal box ; 10. Basement; 11. slip-rings
Rotor-
a) Slip-rings wound
b)
Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor
The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out and
connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with brushes resting on them.
These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This
makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting
period for increasing the starting torque of the motor and for changing its speed-torque/ current
characteristic. When running under normal condition, the slip-rings are automatically short-
circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connect all the rings
together (Figure 3.7). Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the
frictional losses and the wear and tear. Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions,
the wound rotor is short–circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
5
3-phase
supply
stator
Slip-rings
rotor
Starting
Rheostat
Figure 3.7 Three-phase wound –rotor induction motor with external starting rheostat.
c) Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The
stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air-gap separating
it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator. The
enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental elements.
The degree of protection depends upon the type of enclosure (See Appendix D).
Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors.
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound rotor
machine.
i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting
rheostats are required. The star delta starter is sufficient for staring.
ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.
iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction
iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a
smaller copper loss.
v. It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the cooling conditions are better
vi. It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and greater
pull out torque and overload capacity.
The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert resistance in the
rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque, reducing the starting current and
varying the speed as compared with wound rotor motor.
6
3.2 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 1200 are fed by
three-phase current displaced in time by 1200 they produce a resultant magnetic flux which
rotated in space as if actual magnetic poles were being rotated mechanically.
Let a 3-phase , two-pole stator having three identical winding placed 120 space degrees apart and
the flux ( assumed sinusoidal) due to three-phase windings as shown in Figure 3.8(a). The
assumed positive directions of the fluxes are shown Figure 3.8(b).
Phase A Phase B Phase C
B
m
0
3 5 120
1 2 6
4 A 120
O
120
θ
C
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8 (a) flux waveforms due to three-phase windings and (b) positive directions of the fluxes
Let the maximum value of flux due to any one of the three phases to m. The resultant flux r, at
any instant, is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes A, B and C due to three phases.
We will consider values of r at four instants 1/6 time-period apart corresponding to points
marked 0,1,2 and 3 in Figure 3.7(a).
i) When = 00 i.e. corresponding to point 0 in Figure 3.8 (a).
Here
3 3
A 0, B m , C m ,
2 2
The vector for OB in Figure 3.9(i) is drawn in a direction opposite to the direction assumed
positive in Figure 3.8(b).
3 60 0 3 3
r 2 mCos 3 m m
2 2 2 2
(ii) When = 600 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here
3
A
m
2
………drawn in parallel to OA of Figure 3.8 (b) as shown in Figure 3.9 (ii)
7
3
B m
2
………drawn in opposition to OB of Figure 3.8(b) as shown in Figure 3.9(ii)
C = 0
3 3 3
r 2 m Cos 30 3 m m
2 2 2
3
It is found that the resultant flux is again m but has rotated clockwise through an angle of 600.
2
(iii) When = 1200 i.e. corresponding to point 2 in Figure 3.8(a).
Here
3 3
A m , B 0, c m
2 2
3
It can be again proved that r m .So, the resultant flux is again of the same value but has
2
further rotated clockwise through an angle of 600 [Figure 3.9 (iii)].
(iv) When = 1800 i.e. corresponding to point 3 in Figure 3.7a.
3 3
A 0, B m , C m
2 2
3
The resultant is m and has rotated clockwise through an additional angle of 600 or through an
2
angle of 1800 from the start.
A
B C
B
Φr 1.5Φm Φr 1.5Φm
i) θ 0 ii) θ 60
8
Φr 1.5Φm
C
C B
A
Φr 1.5Φm
iii) θ 120 iv) θ 180
Figure 3.9 Resultant flux phasor of 3-phase IM at interval of 60
Hence, we can conclude the above discussion as follow:
3
1. The resultant flux is of constant value = m i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of the
2
flux due to any phase.
120. f
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given by N s
P
Figure 3.10 shows the graph of the rotating flux in simple way. As before the positive directions
of the flux phasors have been shown separately in Figure 3.10. Arrows on these flux phasors are
reversed when each phase passes through zero and becomes negative.
A B C
m
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Figure 3.10 a graph of the rotating flux
As seen, positions of the resultant flux phasor have been shown at intervals of 600 only. The
resultant flux produces a field rotating in the clockwise direction.
N.B. The direction of rotation of a polyphase Induction motor depends on the motor connection
to the power lines. Rotation can be readily reversed by interchanging any two input leads.
9
3.3 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of constant
magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed , is set up. The flux pass through the air gap sweeps
past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet stationery. Due to the
relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the
latter according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced
e.m.f is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed
between the flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced direction, as
given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which
produce the rotor current is relative speed between the rotating flux of the stator and the
stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the
same direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.
The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor is explained below:
In Figure 3.11(a) is shown the stator field which is assumed to be rotting clockwise. The relative
motion of the rotor with respect to the stator is anticlockwise. By applying Fleming’s right-hand
rule, the direction of the induced emf in the rotor is found to be outwards. Hence the direction of
the flux due to the rotor current alone is as shown in Figure 3.11 (b). Now by applying the left-
hand rule or by the effect of combined field (Figure 3.11c) it is clear the rotor conductors
experience a force tending to rotate them in clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor set into rotation
in the same direction as the of the stator flux ( or field).
stator
stator
Stator rotor
rotating fields
rotor Relative
motion
(a) (b)
stator
rotor
(c)
Figure 3.11 pertaining to principle operation of induction motor
An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close to synchronous speed and
therefore emf in the rotor winding will be very small. This small emf gives a small current
producing a torque just sufficient to overcome the losses such as due to friction and windage and
maintain the rotor in rotation. As the mechanical load is applied on the motor shaft, it must slow
down because the torque developed at no load will not be sufficient to keep the rotor revolving at
the no load speed against the additional opposing torque of load. As the motor slows down, the
10
relative motion between the magnetic field and the rotor is increased. This results in greater
rotor emf, rotor current and greater developed torque. Thus, as the load is increased, the motor
slows down until the relative motion between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field is just
sufficient to result in the development of the torque necessary for that particular load.
Slip
In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really did so, then
there would be no relative speed between the two hence no rotor emf no rotor current and so no
torque to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor runs at a speed, which is always less than the
speed of the stator field. The difference in speeds depends upon the load on the motor .
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor is known as
slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is usual to express it as a
percentage of the synchronous speed . Actually, the term 'slip' is descriptive of the way in which
the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.
Ns N
S% X 100
Ns
Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is N Ns (1 S)
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the stator ( i.e.
stationary space but at slip-speed relative to the rotor.
Frequency of rotor current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative
speed or on slip-speed.
Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr . Then,
120 f r
Ns N .
p
120 f
Also N s
p
fr Ns N
S;
Dividing one by the other, we get, f Ns
f r sf
As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of fr = sf and when flowing through the individual
phases of rotor winding give rise to rotor magnetic fields. These individual rotor magnetic fields
produce a combined rotating magnetic field whose speed relative to rotor is
120 f r 120 sf
sN s
P P
However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.
Hence,
11
speed of rotor field in space speed of field to rotor speed of rotor relative to space
SN s N N s (1 S) N s
It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator currents each produce a
sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and constant space speed of Ns. In
other words, both the rotor and stator field rotate synchronously which means that they are
stationary with respect to each other. These two synchronously rotating magnetic fields in fact,
superimpose on each other and given rise to the actually existing rotating field which
corresponds to the magnetizing current of the stator winding.
Example 3.1 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m. For this
motor, calculate the following:
(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator field with
respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and (d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i)
rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii) stator field. For parts (c) and (d), answer should be
given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120 f 1
NS
P
120 50
Or 1440
P
120 50 1
or P 4 poles
1440 6
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor must have 4
poles. Note that an induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than synchronous speed.
(b) Synchronous speed,
120 f1 120 50
NS 1500 r.p.m.
P 4
N s N 1500 1440
Slip, S 0.04
Ns 1500
Rotor frequency, f 2 Sf 1 0.04 50 2 Hz
(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
NS 1500rpm
2 N S 2 1500
S 150.08 rad / s
60 60
(ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500 1440 = 60 rpm
2 60
6.283 rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
12
120 ( rotor frequency )
poles
120 2
60 r.p.m. 6.283 rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure
=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.
(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of 1500 rpm with
respect to stator structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is zero. Thus the stator
and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other.
Example 3.2 A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the rotor circuit of a
6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. If the galvanometer makes 90 complete oscillations
in one minute, calculate the rotor speed.
Solution. One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of rotor frequency.
90
Rotor frequency, f 2 Sf 1 1.5 Hz
60
f 2 1.5
or Slip, S 0.03 s = fz fl =501.5 = 0.03
f1 50
120 50
Rotor speed, N N S (1 S) (1 0.03) 970 r.p.m.
6
13
3.4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL
The preceding sections have provided an appreciation of the physical behavior of the induction
machine. We now proceed to develop an equivalent circuit model that can be used to study and
predict the performance of the induction machine with reasonable accuracy. In this section a
steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit will be derived.
For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-rotor induction machine a shown in Figure 3.12.
In the case of a squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor circuit can be represented by an equivalent three-
phase rotor winding. If currents flow in both stator and rotor windings, rotating magnetic fields
will be produced in the air gap.
Stator Rotor
Air-gap
Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model
Because they rotate at the same speed in the air gap, they will produce a resultant air gap field
rotating at the synchronous speed. This resultant air gap field will induce voltages in both stator
windings (at slip frequency f1) and rotor windings (at slip frequency f2). It appears that the
equivalent circuit may assume a form identical to that of a transformer.
3.4.1 Stator Equivalent Circuit
The stator winding can be represented as shown in Figure 3.13(a),
R1 X1
V1 Rc Xm E1
(a)
Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance
14
Note that there is no difference in form between this equivalent circuit and that of the
transformer primary winding. The difference lies only in the magnitude of the parameters. For
example, the excitation current Io is considerably large in the induction machine because of the
air gap. In induction machines it is as high as 30 to 50 percent of the rated current, depending on
the motor size where as it is only 1 to 5 percent in transformers. Moreover, the leakage reactance
X1 is large because of the air gap and also because the stator and rotor windings are distributed
along the periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a core, as in the transformer.
3.4.2 Rotor Equivalent Circuit
The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
SX2 X2
R2
SE2 R2 E2 S
(b) (c)
Where, E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator frequency f1)
R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance
Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is
sE2
I2 3.1
R2 jsX 2
The power involved in the circuit is
P2 I 2 R2
2
3.2
Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase
Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as
E2
I2 3.3
( R2 / s ) jX 2
Equation (3.3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13 (c). Although the magnitude
and phase angle of I2 are the same in Eqs.(3.1)and (3.3), there is a significant difference between
these two equations and the circuits (Figure 3.13 (b) and (c)) they represent. The current I2 in
Eq.(3.1) is at slip frequency f2, where as I2 in Equation (3.3) is at line frequency f1. In Eq.(3.1)
the rotor leakage reactance SX2 varies with speed but resistance R2 remains fixed, whereas in
Eq.(3.3) the resistance R2/s varies with speed but the leakage reactance X2 remains unaltered.
The per-phase power associated with the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c).
R2 P2
P I2
2
3.4
S S
15
Because induction machines are operated at low slips (typical values of slip s are 0.01 to 0.05)
the power associated with Figure 3.13(c) is considerably larger. Note that the equivalent circuit
of Figure 3.13(c) is at the stator frequency, and therefore this is the rotor equivalent circuit as
seen from the stator. The power in Eq.(3.4) therefore represents the power that crosses the air
gap and thus includes the rotor copper loss as well as the mechanical power developed, Equation
(3.4) can be rewritten as .
R
P Pag I 2 2 R2 2 ( 1 s
S 3.5
R
I 22 2
S
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.13(d).
X2
R2
E2
R2
1 S
S
(d)
The speed dependent resistance R2 (1-s)/s represents the mechanical power developed by the
induction machine.
R2
P mech I 2 2 ( 1 S)
S
(1 S) Pag
1 S
.P2
S
and
P2 I 2 2 R 2 SPag
Thus
Pag : P2 :Pmech 1 : S : 1 S
This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (i.e. power crossing the air gap,
Pag), a fraction s is dissipated in the resistance of the rotor circuit (known as rotor copper loss)
and the fraction 1-s is converted into mechanical power. Therefore, for efficient operation of the
induction machine, it should operate at a low slip so that more of the air gap power is converted
into mechanical power. Part of the mechanical power will be lost to overcome the windage and
friction. The remainder of the mechanical power will be available as out put shaft power.
3.4.3 Complete Equivalent Circuit
The stator equivalent circuit, Figure 3.13(a) and the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) or
(d) are at the same line frequency f1 and therefore can be joined together. However, E1 and E2
may be different if the turns in the stator wining and the rotor winding are different. If the turns
16
ratio a N1
is considered, the equivalent circuit of the induction machine is that shown in
N 2
Figure 3.13(e). Note that the form of the equivalent circuit is identical to that of a two-winding
transformer, as expected.
I2
R1 X1 I 2' X 2' a 2 X 2
a
I1 Io
Ic Im
Xm E2 aE2 E1
'
E1 Rc R2' a 2 R2
V1
S S
Pag
(e)
Figure 3.13 Development of the induction machine equivalent circuit
3.4.4 Various equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure3.13 (e) is not convenient to use for predicting the
performance of the induction machine. As a result, several simplified versions have been
proposed in various textbooks on electric machines. There is no general agreement on how to
treat the shunt branch (i.e., Rc and Xm), particularly the resistance RC representing the core loss
in the machine. Some of the commonly used versions of the equivalent circuit are discussed here.
3.4.5 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1 does not appreciably
differ from the induced voltage E1, the magnetizing branch (i.e. Rc and Xm), can be moved to the
machine terminals as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2
V1 Rc Xm R2'
S
Pag
(a)
This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify computation, because the
excitation current (Io) and the load component (I'2) of the machine current can be directly
computed from the terminal voltage V1 by dividing it by the corresponding impedance.
Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and frequency the
stator core loss is fixed. At no load, the machine will operate close to synchronous speed.
17
Therefore, the rotor frequency f2 is very small and hence rotor core loss is very small. At a lower
speed f2 increases and so does the rotor core loss. The total core losses thus increase as the speed
falls. On the other hand, at no load, friction and windage losses are maximum and as speed falls
these losses decreases. Therefore, if a machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-
frequency source, the sum of core losses and friction and windage losses remains essentially
constant at all operating speeds. These losses can thus be lumped together and termed the
constant rotational losses of the induction machine. If the core loss is lumped with the windage
and frication loss Rc can be removed from the equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 3.14(b).
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2
V1 Xm R2'
S
Pag
(b)
Figure 3.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of Induction motor
3.4.6 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit
In the induction machine, because of its air gap, the exciting current Io is high of the order of 30
to 50 percent of the full-load current. The leakage Reactance X1 is also high . The IEEE
recommends that in such situation, the magnetizing reactance Xm not be moved to the machine
terminals (as is done in Figure 3.14b), but be retained at its appropriate place, as shown in Figure
3.15. The resistance RC is however, omitted, and the core loss is lumped with the windage and
friction losses. This equivalent circuit (Figure 3.15) is to be preferred for situation in which the
induced voltage E1 differs appreciably from the terminal voltage V1.
R1 X1 I'2 X'2
I1 Io
R '2
V1 Xm
S
Pag
Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit
3.4.7 Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit
In order to simplify computations V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced by Thevenin's equivalent
circuit values Vth, Rth and Xth, as shown in Figure 3.16.
18
Rth Xth X2
R2
Vth
S
Pag
Figure 3.16 Thevenin Equivalent circuit
Xm
Vth V1
R 1
2
( X1 X m ) 2
1
2
Where
If R12 ( X 1 X m ) 2 as is usually the case
Xm
Vth V1
X1 X m
Vth K th V1
Xm
Where, K th
X1 X m
The Thevenin impedance is
jX m ( R1 jX 1 )
Z th
R1 j ( X 1 X m )
Rth jX th
If R12 ( X 1 X m ) 2
2
Xm
R th R1
1
X X m
2
K th R1
and since X1 << Xm
Xth X1
Example 3.3 A 3-phase slip ring induction motor gives a reading of 55V across slip rings on
open circuit when at rest with normal stator voltage applied. The rotor is star-connected and has
impedance of (0.7 + j 5) per phase. Find the rotor current when the machine is (a) at stand still
19
with the slip rings joined to a star-connected starter with a phase impedance of (4 + j 3) ohms
and (b) running normally with a 5 percent slip.
Solution
(a) At standstill, i.e. S=1
55
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding, E 2 31.8V
3
Resistance per phase in rotor circuit, r2 0.7 4 4.7 4.7
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x2 5 3 8
Impendence per phase in rotor circuit, z2 r22 x22 4.7 2 8 2 9.28
E 31.8
Rotor current per phase, I 2 2 3.425 A
z 2 9.28
r 4.7
Power factor cos 2 2 0.506 ( lagging )
z 2 9.28
(b) Running normally at 5 Percent slip
Induced e.m.f in rotor winding per phase,
E2 S SE2 0.05 31.8 1.59 V
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit,
x2 S Sx2 0.05 5 0.25
Rotor impedance per phase,
z 2 S r22 x22S 0.7 2 0.252 0.7433
E2 S 1.59
Rotor current per phase, I 2 2.14 A
z 2 S 0.7433
Power factor,
r 0.7
cos 2 2 0.92 ( lagging )
z2 S 0.7433
Example 3.4 A 3, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm induction motor delivers full output
power to a load connected to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of the motor is 750 W.
Determine the
a. Mechanical power developed.
b. Air gap power
c. Rotor copper loss.
Solution
a) Full-load shft power, Pshaft = 15 746 = 11,190 W
Mechanical power developed, Pmech = Pshaft + Pf&w
= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W
20
120 f 120 60
b. Synchronous speed, N s 1800 rpm
P 4
N s N 1800 1728
Slip, S 0.04
Ns 1800
Pmech 11,940
Air gap power, Pag 12,437.5 W
1 S 1 0.04
P2 SPag 0.04 12,437.5 497.5 W
c. Rotor copper loss,
3.5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the performance
characteristics of the induction machine. The important performance, characteristics in the steady
state are the efficiency, power factor, current, starting torque maximum (or pull-out) torque, and
so forth.
The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by
R2
Pmech Tmech . I2 . (1 S ) 33331
2
mech 3.6
S
Where,
2 N
mech 3.6 a
60
The mechanical speed mech is related to the synchronous speed by
mech ( 1 S )syn
Ns 11 3.7
2 ( 1 s )
60
and
120 f
syn x 2 3.8
P.60
From Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)
2
I R
Tmech . syn 2 2 pag 3.9
S
1
Tmech .Pag 3.10
syn
21
1 R2
2
.I2 3.10a
syn S
1 R2
2
I2 3.11
syn S
From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Eq.1.11
2
1 Vth R2
Tmech . . 3.12
syn
R
( Rth 2 )2 ( X th X 2 )2 S
S
Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.13(b) are used to determine I2 in
Eq.(3.12) Vth, Rth and Xth should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1 respectively. The prediction of
performance based on the approximate equivalent circuit may differ by 5 percent from those
based on the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15 or Figure 3.16.
For a three-phase machine Eq.3.12 should be multiplied by three to obtain the total torque
developed by the machine.
2
3 Vth R2
T3 ,mech . .
syn ( Rth
R2 2
) ( X th X 2 ) 2 S
S
The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure 3.17. At low values of slip,
R2' R2'
( Rth ) ( X th X 2' ) and Rth
S S
And thus
1 V 2 th
Tmech . .S 3.13
syn R' 2
Tmax
TSt NS
N
0 STmax 0 S
1
Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor
22
The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure 3.17 near the synchronous speed. Note
that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.14) are used in, Eq. (3.13), Vth should
replaced by V1. At larger values of slip,
R2'
Rth X th X 2'
S
and
1 Vth R' 2
Tmech . . 3.14
syn ( X th X ' 2 ) 2 S
The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as seen from Figure 3.16. Equation (3.12)
also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed value of s) the torque varies as the square of
the supply voltage Vth (hence V1).
T
0 0%
=1
V 1
%
.7 07
=0
V 1
%
0.5
V 1=
N
NS
Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages
Figure 3.18 shows the T-N profile at various supply voltages. This aspect will be discussed
further in a later section on speed control of induction machines by changing the stator voltage.
Maximum Torque
dTmech
An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting 0 . Differentiating Eq.
dS
(3.12) with respect to slip s and equating the result to zero gives the following condition for
maximum torque.
R2'
ST max
Rth2 ( X th X 2' )2 1
2
3.15
This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the condition for maximum torque
corresponds to the condition for maximum air gap power (Eq.3.10). This occurs, by the familiar
impedance-matching principle in circuit theory, when the impedance of R'2/s equals in
magnitude the impedance between it and the supply voltage V1 (Figure 3.16) as shown in
Eq.(3.15). The slip Smax at maximum torque Tmax is
R2'
ST max
R
1 3.16
2
th ( X th X 2' )2 2
23
The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16) is
2
1 Vth
Tmax . 3.17
2 syn R [ R 2 ( X X ' )2 ] 1 2
th th th 2
Equation (3.17) shows that the maximum torque developed by the induction machine is
independent of the rotor circuit resistance. However, from Eq. (3.16) it is evident that the value
of the rotor resistance R2 determines the speed at which this maximum torque will occur. The
torque-speed characteristics for various values of R2 are shown in Figure.3.19.
TSt
TSt R2
increasing
TSt
NS
Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R 2
In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the rotor circuit to make the
maximum torque occur at standstill so that high starting torque can be obtained. As the motor
speeds up, the external resistance is gradually decreased and finally taken out completely. Some
induction motors are, in fact, designed so that maximum torque is available at start, that is, at
zero speed.
If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly small), from Eqs. (3.16) and (3.17),
R2'
ST max 3.18
X th X 2'
2
1 Vth
Tmax 3.19
2 syn X th X 2'
Equation (3.19) indicates that the maximum torque developed by induction machine is inversely
proportional to the sum of the leakage reactances. From Eq. (3.12), the ratio of the maximum
torque developed to the torque developed at any speed is
2
R2'
X th X 2'
2
R
th
Tma x S S
2
3.20
T ST ma x
Rth R2 X th X 2' 2
'
STm a x
24
If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,
2
R2'
X th X 2
' 2
S
Tmax S
2
3.21
T R2' S T max
X th X 2' 2
ST
ma x
From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.21)
2
R'
2
R2'
2
Tmax S ST
ma x S
2 3.22
T R2' ST max
2
ST
ma x
2
Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by R2
'
S
T
max
1 S T S
2
Tmax
1max
T 2 S S T max
1 ST S S
2 2
max
2 S2 ST max
1 S S
2 2
Tmax
2 S ST max
Hence,
Tmax S2 S2
T max 3.23
T 2 ST S max
Equation (3.23) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the maximum torque in
terms of their slip values.
Example 3.5 A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, induction motor runs on full load with a slip of 4
percent. Given the rotor standstill impedance per phase as (0.01 + j 0.05), calculate the
available maximum torque in terms of full load torque. Also determine the speed at which the
maximum torque occurs. .
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.01
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.05
Full load slip, S=4%=0.04
Ratio of maximum torque to full load torque
25
2
R2 0.01
2
S 2fl 0.04
2
X2 0.05
0.0416
2.6
R2 0.01 0.016
2 S fl 2 0.04
X2 0.05
Maximum torque, Tmax 2.6T fl
R2 0.01
(ii) Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max 0.2
X 2 0.05
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
120 50
N N s ( 1 ST max ) ( 1 0.2 )
6
800 r . p .m.
Example 3.6 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.024 per
phase and standstill reactance of 0.6 per phase. Determine the speed at which the maximum
torque is developed.
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6
Since the torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip which makes rotor
reactance per phase equal to the rotor resistance per phase,
R 0.024
Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max 2 0.04
X2 0.6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
N N S 1 ST max
120 50
1 0.04
4
1440 rpm
Example 3.7 The maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor is twice the full load torque
and starting torque is equal to full load torque. Calculate the full load speed and the slip at which
maximum torque occurs.
Solution Maximum torque, Tmax 2T fl
Starting torque, Tst T fl
Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque,
Tst
0.5
Tmax
Since from Eq.1.23
Tst 2S
2 T max
Tmax ST max 1
26
2 ST max
0.5
ST2 max 1
or ST2 max 4 ST max 1 0
Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,
4 42 4
ST max 2 3 0.268 rejecting higher value
2
Let the full load slip of Sfl. Since the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque (Eq.3.23) is
given by the expression
T fl 2 ST max S fl
Tmax ST2 max S 2fl
1 2 0.268 S fl
Or
2 0.268 2 S 2fl
Or 0268 2 S 2fl 4 0.268 0
Or S fl 0.072 rejecting higher value.
Full load speed,
N N S 1 S fl N s 1 0.072 0.928 N s i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed
STATOR CURRENT
From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit Figure 3.16, the input impedance is
R'
Z1 R1 jX 1 X m // 2 jX 2'
S
R1 jX 1 X m // Z 2
'
R'
jX m 2 jX 2'
Z1 R1 jX 1 S
'
R2
j ( X m X 2' )
S
Z1 1
The stator current is
V
I 1 1 I o I 2'
Z1
At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R2'/s is infinite and so I2' = 0. The stator current I1 is the
exciting current Io. At larger values of slip S2'(=R2'/s +jX2’) is low and therefore I2'(and hence I1)
is large. In fact, the typical starting current (i.e. at S=1) is five to eight times the rated current.
The typical stator current variation with speed is shown in Figure 3.20.
27
I1
pu
6
5
4
3
2
1
-Ns 0 Ns N
Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed
INPUT POWER FACTOR
The supply power factor is given by
PF Cosθ1
where 1 is the phase angle of the stator current I1. This phase angle 1 is the same as the
impedance angle of the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15. The typical power factor variation with
speed is shown in Figure 3.21.
PF
0.8
0.5
0 Ns N
Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed
EFFICIENCY
In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power converter, the various
losses in the machine are first identified. These losses are illustrated in the power flow diagram
of Figure 3.22 For a 3 machine the power input to the stator is
Pin =3V1 I1 Cos 1
The power loss in the stator windings is
P1 3I12 R 1
Where R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at the operating
temperature and frequency.
Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material of the stator core.
The remaining power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the resistance of the rotor
circuit. P2 3I 22 R 2
28
Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding. If it is a wound-rotor machine, R2 also
includes any external resistance connected to the rotor circuit through slip rings.
Power is also lost in the rotor core. Because the core losses are dependent on the frequency f 2 of
the rotor, these may be negligible at normal operating speeds, where f2 very low.
Stator Rotor Friction &
core loss core loss Windage Loss
Pag
Pmech
Pin 3V1I1Cosθ1
Pout (shaft)
Stator Rotor
copper loss copper loss
Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor
The remaining is converted into mechanical form. Part of this is lost as windage and friction
losses, which are dependent on speed. The rest is the mechanical output power P out which is the
useful power output from the machine.
The efficiency of the induction motor is
Pout
3.24
Pin
The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in the
resistance of the rotor circuit,
Pag = Pin
P2 = sPag
Pout = Pmech = Pag (1S)
and the ideal efficiency is
Pout
ideal 1 S 3.25
Pin
Sometimes (ideal) is also called the internal efficiency as it represents the ratio of the power
output to the air gap power. The ideal efficiency as a function of speed is shown in Figure 3.23.
It indicates that an induction machine must operate near its synchronous speed if high efficiency
is desired. This is why the slip is very low for normal operation of the induction machine. If
other losses are included, the actual efficiency is lower than the ideal efficiency of Eq.(3.25) as
shown in Figure.3.23. The full-load efficiency of a large induction motor may be as high as 95
percent.
29
η Ideal
efficiency,
1-S
Actual
efficiency
0.5
0 Ns N
.
Figure 3.23 Efficiency as a function of speed
Example 3.8 A 3, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has the
following parameters per phase:
R1=0.25 R2’=0.2
X1=X2’=0.5 Xm=30
The rotation losses are 1700 w. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find
a). i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage
ii) Starting torque
b) i) Full-load slip
ii) Full-load current
iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current
iv) Full-load power factor
v) Full-load torque
vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load
c) i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed
ii) Maximum torque developed
d) How much external resistance per phase should be connected in the rotor circuit
so that the maximum torque occurs at start?
Solution
460
a) V1 265.6 V / phase
3
At start S=1. The input impedance is
30
r'
jX m 2 jx '2
s
Z1 r1 x1 '
r2
s
j x m x '2
j300.2 j0.5
0.25 j0.5
0.2 j30.5
1.0866
265.6
I st 245.9 66A
1.0866
2N s 2 1800
syn 188.5 rad / s
60 60
V1 jX m 266.5 j 30.0
Vth 261.3V
r1 j xm x1 0.25 j30.5
jX m ( R1 jX 1 ) j 30( 0.25 j0.5 )
Z th 0.5563.9
R1 j( X 1 X m ) 0.25 j 30.5
0.24 j0.49
Rth 0.24 ; X th 0.49
2
3 Vth R2'
Tst .
syn ( Rth R2' ) 2 ( X th X 2 ) 2 S
3 261.3 2 0.2
188.5 ( 0.24 0.2 ) ( 0.49 0.5 )
2 2
1
185.2 N .m
b) At full-load
N s N 1800 1740
S 0.0333
Ns 1800
R2' 0.2
6.01
s 0.0333
j306.01 j0.5
Z1 0.25 j0.5
6.01 j30.5
0.25 j0.5 5.598 j1.596
6.212319.7
31
265.6
I FL 42.754 19.7A
6.212319.7
I st 245.9
5.75
I FL 42.754
PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging
3 261.32
TFL 6.01
188.5 (0.24 6.01) 2 (0.49 0.5) 2
163.11 N.m
Air gap power
Pag Tsyn 163.11 188.5 30,746.2 W
Rotor copper loss:
P2 sPag 0.0333 30,746.2 1023.9 W
P2 1 sPag 1 0.0333 30,746.2 29,722.3 W
Pout Pmech Prot 29 ,722.3 1700 28 ,022.3W
Pin 3V1 I 1 cos 1 3 265.6 42.754 0.94 32,022.4 W
Pout 28,022.3
motor 100 87.5%
Pin 32,022.4
int ernal ( 1 s ) 1 0.0333 0.967 96.7%
c)
From Eq. 3.16
R '2
S T max
R 2
th ( X th X '2 ) 2 1
2
0.2 0.2
0.1963
0.24 2
0.49 0.5
2
1
2 1.0187
From Eq.1.17
2
3 Vth
Tmax .
2 syn R [ R 2 ( X X ' ) 2 ] 12
th th th 2
3 261.3 2
2 188.5 0.24 0.24 2 0.49 0.52
1
2
431.68N.m
32
Tmax 431.68
2.65
TFL 163.11
d)
R '2 R 'ex t
ST max 1
R 2
th ( X th X '2 ) 2 1
2
R '2 R 'ex t R '2 R 'ex t
0.24 0.49 0.5 2
2 2
1
1.0187
R 'ex t 1.0187 0.2 0.8187
Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Calculation
can be based on the equivalent circuit of Figure. 3.15 as follows:
Z1 r1 x 1 R e jX e
0.25 j0.5 5.598 j1.596
3 2 3
T I1 R e 42.754 2 5.598
syn 188.5
163 N.m
3.6 INDUCTION MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM
The rotor m.m.f. F2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + 2. The rotor m.m.f.
reacts on the stator and calls for a compensating load component of stator current I2' such that
load component of stator m.m.f. Fl' = rotor m.m.f. F2
or I '2 N1' I 2 N '2
' N '2 N k
I2 I2 I 2 2 w2
' N1k w1
N1
Here N 1' and N2 are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In Figure 3.24
load component of m.m.f. F1' I '2 N1' of the total stator m.m.f. Fl, is shown opposing rotor m.m.f.
F2. Similarly, load-component current I2', of the total stator current I1, is shown opposite to rotor
current I2. In Figure 3.24, per-phase rotor induced emf E2 lags by a time-phase angle of 90°.
33
I’2
I1
I’2N’1=F’1 F1
Fr Im
2
F2 = I2 N’2
E2
I2
E1
Figure 3.24 pertaining to the induction motor phasor diagram
If hysteresis is neglected then air-gap flux is in phase with the resultant air-gap m.m.f. Fr. As
in a transformer, the no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor does not differ from resultant air-
gap m.m.f. Fr. It is because of this reason that motor magnetizing current Im, is shown in phase
with Fr, in Figure 3.24. The phasor sum of Fl' and Fr gives the total stator m.m.f. Fl. Similarly the
phasor sum of stator-load component of current I2’and motor magnetizing current Im gives the
total stator current I1 as illustrated in Figure 3.24. The stator (or the primary) induced emf El and
rotor (or secondary) induced emf E2 are shown lagging by 90 as in transformer.
Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Figure 3.25(a), where mmfs
are not shown for the sake of clarity. At standstill, E2 is shown equal to I2 (r2 + jx2). The core-
loss component of stator current, i.e. Ic is in phase with Vl' or - E1. At standstill, friction and
windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is I 0 I m I c and the stator load current is
I1 I '2 I o . The stator applied voltage Vl must balance the stator counter emf Vl' (= - E1) and the
stator leakage impedance drop I1 (rl +jxl) as shown in Figure 3.25 (a). The power factor angle 1
(between V1 and Il) at the stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator power factor is very poor at
the time of starting a 3-phase induction motor.
At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now becomes, sE 2 = I2
(r2 + jsx2) and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.25(b). In this Figure,
I 0 I m I fc , where Ifc, is the friction, windage and core-loss component of stator current. The
rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the same manner as illustrated in Figure 3.24(a).
Figure 3.25(b) reveals that full load power factor at the stator terminals has considerably
improved (0.8 to 0.9 lagging) from its power factor at starting. In the phasor diagrams of
Figures 3.24 and 3.25, all quantities have per-phase values.
34
V1 jI x
1
V1 1
jI 1x 1 I1r1
I1r1
V’1=-E1 I1
V’1=-E1 I’2
1
1 I’2 I1
I0 I0
Ic
I 2r 2 Im
2
I2 r
2 2
I2
jI 2x 2
sE2=I2Z2
E2=I2 Z2 I2
jSI2x2
E1
E1
(a) (b)
Figure 3.25 Induction motor Phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b) a full -load slip s.
MODES OF OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES
The three phase induction machine has the following three modes or operating regions of
operations depending upon the values of slips:
a) Motoring Mode : 1<S>0
Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by the stator
currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at synchronous speed, i.e. 1 < S > 0.
The corresponding speed values are zero (S=1) and synchronous speed (S=0).
b) Generating Mode: S < 0.
For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0. An induction motor will operate in this region
only when its stator terminals are connected to constant-frequency voltage source and its rotor is
driven above synchronous speed by prime mover. The connection of stator terminals to voltage
source is essential in order to establish the rotating air gap field at synchronous speed. In case
stator is disconnected from voltage source and rotor is driven above synchronous speed by the
prime mover, no generating action takes place.
c) Braking Mode: S > 1.
For this mode, slip is greater than 1. a slip more than one can be obtained by driving the rotor ,
with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of rotating field. But such a use in practice is rare.
A practical utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to a quick stop by braking
action, called plugging. For obtaining S>1, or for obtaining plugging, any two stator terminal
leads are interchanged. With this the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore, the direction of
rotating magnetic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation. The
electromagnetic torque T, now acting opposite to rotor rotation, produces the braking action.
Thus the motor can be quickly brought to rest by plugging, but the stator must be disconnected
from the supply before the rotor can start rotate in the other direction.
35
All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2.0 to S=1.0; motor regions, S=1.0 to S=0 and
generator region, S=0 to S=-1) are illustrated in Figure 3.26.
BRAKING MOTOR GENERATOR
REGION REGION REGION
Tmax
-NS 0 NS 2NS
Tmax
S=2 S=1 S=0 S=-1
Figure 3.26 torque-slip curve of an induction machine showing its braking, motor and generator regions
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS
Steady-state operating characteristics of an induction motor show graphically the variation of
speed, power factor, stator current and efficiency as the shaft power output is varied from no-
load to full load. For a given induction motor, the operating characteristics are governed by its
rotor resistance, air-gap length and shape of both stator and rotor slots. The objective of this
article is to describe the nature of the steady-state operating characteristics of induction motors
and to examine the factors that govern them. Figure 3.27 illustrates typical operating
characteristics of an induction motor. The shape of these curves is now explained below.
speed
1.0
Stator current, efficiency, Torque, Speed
efficiency
P.f.
0.8
in p.u and p.f.
Stator current
0.6
Torque
0.4
0.2
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25
Power output (p.u.)
Figure 3.27 operating characteristics of an induction motor
a.) Speed
At no load, the rotor speed is near to synchronous speed; therefore, the no-load slip is very small.
Also, the no-load torque, sufficient to overcome the loss-torque required by friction and windage,
is very low. As a result of small no-load torque, the rotor current or the rotor m.m.f. F2 is also
quite small and the load angle, is very near to 90°. As the applied load torque is increased,
36
electromagnetic torque T must increase accordingly-this can happen only if rotor m.m.f. F2 and
the load angle increase. In order that rotor m.m.f. F2 or rotor current I2 increase, the rotor emf sE2
must increase or the slip must increase; in other words the rotor speed must decrease as the load
torque is increased. Here E2 is the rotor emf per phase at standstill.
At no-load, rotor leakage reactance has little effect on the rotor leakage impedance, because rotor
frequency and sx2 are very small and load angle 90 tan 1 sX 2 is very near to 90°. When the
r2
sX
slip increases with an increase in load, the rotor power factor angle 2 tan 1 2 increases
r2
and as a result of it, load angle (90 + 2) is also increased. This shows that as the applied load
torque is increased, the rotor speed falls and both the rotor m.m.f. F2 and load angle increase to
supply the required load torque. The fall in speed from no load to full load is usually in the range
of 2 to 5 percent of rated speed. In view of this an induction motor can be said to possess shunt
characteristics.
b.) Power factor:
The stator current of a three-phase induction motor is made up of the following three
components:
(i) Magnetizing current Im: This component lags stator voltage Vl by 90° as in a transformer. Its
function is to set up rotating magnetic field.
(ii) Stator-loss component Ic: This component supplies the stator iron loss and stator copper loss
as in a transformer.
(iii) Load component I’2: This component balances the rotor m.m.f. as in a transformer.
At no load, stator current Io is shown in Figure 3.28. The function of the third, i.e. load, com-
ponent of Io at no load is to supply friction and windage (F.W.) loss. (For a transformer at no
load, this third component is zero). The rotor power developed at no load, is, therefore, equal to
F.W. loss. As this loss is quite small, rotor current and therefore load component is very small.
V1
' B
1' I 2
1
A
I '2
I0
O
I2
I2 E2
E1
Figure 3.28 Improvement of power factor with increase in load
37
So the current due to the combination of second and third components is quite small. But the
magnetizing current Im forms a major component of Io due to the presence of air gap in an
induction motor. As a result, no-load current Io lags the stator voltage by an angle 0 in the range
of 75° to 85°. Consequently, the stator power factor at no load may be as low as 0.1 to 0.3, the
lower values being applicable for large induction motors.
As the motor is loaded, the third, i.e. load, component of stator current rises above its no-load
value. The increment of load component of stator current above its no load value is responsible
for supplying the load torque. The stator-load component I2' given by when added to Io, gives the
stator current OA at a power factor of cos1. With further increase of load on the motor, the rotor
current increases and the stator-load component I2' when added to Io gives the stator current OB
at a power factor of cos 1'. It is thus seen from Figure 3.28 that the p.f. angle decreases and,
therefore, the stator power factor improves as the load on the motor is increased. The stator
power factors of about 0.85 to 0.88 are obtained at 80 to 90% of full-load outputs. If the motor is
loaded beyond this load, power factor decreases slightly because of the predominant effect of
stator and rotor leakage reactance drops.
c.) Efficiency:
As in other electrical machines, the induction machine losses are made up of fixed losses (= core
loss + friction and windage loss) and variable load losses. At no load, the shaft power output is
zero, therefore, efficiency is zero. At lower values of loads, the fixed losses are more as
compared with the output; efficiency is, therefore, low. As the load is increased, the efficiency
also rises and becomes maximum when fixed losses and variable losses are equal. Maximum
efficiency occurs at about 80 to 95% of rated output, the higher values being applicable for larger
motors. If the load is increased beyond the load resulting in maximum efficiency, the load losses
increase more rapidly than the output, consequently the efficiency decreases.
d.) Stator current:
The no-load stator current is about 30 to 50% of rated current, the larger values being applicable
to smaller sizes. With the increase in load, the current rises correspondingly. In the phasor
diagram, the locus of the tips of stator current with increasing loads follows a semi-circle and
this leads to the induction motor circle diagram.
e.) Air gap:
In induction motors, for constant supply voltage, the air-gap flux remains substantially constant.
If the air-gap length is increased, then constant flux requires more magnetizing current. This
reduces the no-load power factor as well as the full-load power factor of the induction motor.
Therefore, in order that an induction motor operates at a better power factor, the air-gap length is
kept as small as is mechanically possible. Small air-gap clearance in induction motors
necessitates a heavier shaft and high-grade bearings than are required for other types of rotating
machines of the same rating and speed.
Open slots in an induction motor has the effect of increasing the air-gap length (1.10 to 1.20
times the actual air-gap length) as a result of which more magnetizing current is required and the
operating power factor of the motor is worsened. But an induction motor with open slots has less
leakage reactance and, therefore, more Tst, more Tmax etc. Likewise induction motors with semi-
closed slots or closed slots requires less magnetizing current and, therefore, better operating
38
power factor, but its Tst, Tmax etc are reduced. In view of this, at the design stage, a compromise
has to be made between Tst, Tmax and the operating power factor of the induction motors.
3.7 DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
The equivalent circuit parameters of poly phase induction motors can be determined from no
load test, blocked-rotor test and stator winding dc resistance. The object of this article is to
describe the methods of determining the parameters from these tests.
3.7.1 No-load test (or running light test)
The induction motor is made to run at no load at rated voltage and frequency. Per phase values of
applied stator voltage Vnl, input current Inl and input power Pnl are recorded.
U A1 W1
V
3-Phase
V A2 IM
W A3 W2
Figure 3.29 Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test
r2
The no-load slip S is very small, therefore in Figure 3.15 of IEEE recommended equivalent
s
circuit, is very large as compared to Xm. In view of this, the resultant of parallel branches jXm
r
and 2 jx 2 is almost equal to jXm as illustrated in Figure 3.30 (a). Thus the no-load
s
reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is equal to x1 + Xm, i.e.
Xnl = x1 + Xm = X1 3.26
Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.
From the instrument readings at no load, stator no-load impedance:
Vn1
Z n1
I n1
And stator no-load resistance:
Pn1
Rn1 2
I n1
X n1 Z nl Rn1
2 2
39
The rotational losses Prot (friction, windage loss and core loss) are usually assumed constant
and can be obtained from the relation.
PRot m( Pnl I nl2 R1 )
Where m is the number of stator phases and r1 is the per phase stator resistance
Thus the no-load test gives Xn1 and the rotational losses PR.
R1 X1
INL
Xm
VNL
(a)
3.7.2 Blocked-rotor test
Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a transformer, is performed on the induction
motor to calculate its leakage impedance.
For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by external means, i.e. the rotor shaft is held
stationary by belt-pulley arrangement or by hand. Now balanced poly phase voltages at rated
frequency are applied to the stator terminals through a poly phase variac. This applied voltage is
adjusted till rated current flows in the stator winding. Per phase values of applied voltage Vbr,
input current (=rated current) Ibr and the input power Pbr are recorded. Current Ibr may be affected
by rotor position; in view of this the rotor should be held in a position that gives Ibr equal to the
mean of maximum and minimum current value.
Measure the dc resistance per phase of the stator winding soon after this test and multiply it by
1.1 to 1.3 in order to obtain the per phase effective stator resistance r1.
The equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor test is as shown in Figure.3.30 (b).
R1 X1 X2
Xm R2
Vbr
S
(b)
Figure 3.30 Induction motor equivalent circuits for (a) no-load test and (b) blocked-rotor test
40
From the instrument readings during blocked-rotor test, the parameters can be obtained as under:
The blocked-rotor impedance
Vbr
Z br
I br
and the blocked-rotor resistance,
P
Rbr br
2
I br
Blocked-rotor reactance
X br Z br 2 Rbr 2
An examination of Figure 3.30 (b) reveals that the blocked-rotor impedance seen from the stator
terminals is given by
jX m ( r2 jx 2 )
Z br Rbr jX br r1 jx1
r2 j( x2 X m )
jX m ( r2 jx 2 ) r2 j ( x2 xm )
r1 jx1 .
r2 j ( x2 xm ) r2 j ( x2 xm )
jX m [ r2 jr2 x2 jr2 ( x2 X m ) x2 ( x2 X m ]
2
r1 jx1
r2 ( x2 X m )2
2
jX m [ r2 x2 X 2 jr2 X m ]
2
or Rbr jX br r1 jx1 3.27
r2 X 22
2
Where X2 = x2 +Xm, is the rotor self-reactance.
Comparison of the imaginary components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) gives
X m [ r22 x 2 X 2 ]
X br x1
r 22 X 22
r22
Xm x2
X 2
x1
r22
X2
X2
X 2 r2 , therefore r may be neglected. With this
2
Since 2
X2
41
X m x2 X m x2
X br x1 x1
X2 X m x2
x2
x1
x
1 2
Xm
x2
Usually the magnetizing reactance Xm >> rotor leakage reactance x2, therefore is
Xm
negligible small and this gives
Xbr = x1 +x2 3.28
There is no practical method of separating x1 and x2. For wound rotor machines x1 is assumed
equal to x2 i.e. x1 = x2= ½Xbr
For squirrel cage induction machines, total leakage reactance Xbr (=x1 +x2) can be distributed
between stator and rotor as per the following table:
Table 3.1: Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr
Fraction of Xbr
Class of motor X1 X2
1. Class A (normal Tst , high Ist and low slip) 0.5 0.5
2. Class B (normal Tst, low Ist and low slip) 0.4 0.6
3. Class C (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.3 0.7
4. Class D (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.5 0.5
Once x1 is known, then from Eq. (3.26), the stator magnetizing reactance is given by
Xm= Xnl –x1
Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq. (3.27) blocked-rotor resistance Rbr as seen
from the stator terminals is
X 2m
R br r1 r2
r22 X 22
For machines of normal design, X2>> r2 therefore, r2 in the denominator can be neglected as
compared to X2
2
X
R br r2 r2 m
X2
Per phase rotor resistance
2
X
r2 ( R br r1 ) 2 3.29
Xm
42
Thus Xm from Eq. (3.26) r2 from Eq. (3.29), r1 form dc resistance per phase of stator winding and
x1, x2 from Eq. (3.28) and Table 3.1 can be determined from three tests. The equivalent circuit
can now be used for computing the motor performance.
Note: For large motors (above 20KW or so), if induction motor characteristics are required near
s =1 (e.g. for starting torque etc.); then since rotor frequency f2 is equal to the line frequency, the
blocked- rotor test should be carried out at line frequency and with currents equal to those
encountered at the time of starting.
In case induction motor characteristics are required near synchronous speed (e.g. during normal
operation), then rotor frequency is equal to sf1, therefore, the blocked-rotor test should be carried
out at reduced frequency and with normal currents.
3.7.3 Separation of friction and windage loss from the no-load test
The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to supply the stator copper loss, core loss
and friction and windage loss.
The dc resistance of the stator winding is measured and its per phase effective value r1 is
calculated from the relation.
r1 = (1.1 to 1.3) (dc resistance of one phase)
For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied voltage to the unloaded induction motor
is varied from 1.25 times the rated voltage to about 20% of the rated voltage. The input power,
current and voltage are recorded so that a graph can be plotted. The speed, with reduction in
voltage, will fall only slightly so that the friction and windage loss remains substantially constant
From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic loss is subtracted to
obtain the core loss and friction and windage loss, i.e.
Prot m( Pnl I nl2 r1 )
Where, Pnl is the per phase power input,
Inl is the per phase stator current and
r1 is the effective per phase stator resistance.
The plot of the rotational loss Prot with variable stator voltage is shown in Figure 3.31. The
intercept of the extraplotted Prot curve with the ordinate gives the friction and windage loss,
because the core loss is zero for zero applied voltage.
Prot
PC
Pf&W
Vrated V
Figure 3.31 Variation of rotational loss with voltage
43
In order to get a motor accurate value of mechanical loss (friction and windage loss), rotational
loss Prot should be plotted against (Voltage) 2. This plot of Prot with (voltage)2 is almost linear
and, therefore, the extrapolation is easier.
Example 3.9 A 10-Kw , 400-V, 4-pole delta connected squirrel cage induction motor gave the
following test results:
No-load Test: 400-V , 8-A, 250-W
Blocked rotor Test: 90-V, 35-A, 1350-W
The dc resistance of the stator winding per phase measured after the blocked –rotor test is 0.6Ω.
Calculate the rotational losses and the equivalent circuit parameters.
Solution
No-load rotational losses are
2
8
Prot Pnl 3I nl R1 250 3
2
(0.6 1.20) 203.92W
3
Note that the effective stator resistance per phase is taken equal to 1.2 times its d.c. value.
From no-load Test:
Vnl 400
Z nl 86 .6
I nl 8
3
Pnl 250
R nl 3.91
3I nl
2 2
3 8
3
X nl Z 2nl R 2nl 86 .62 3.912 86 .51
From blocked-rotor test:
Vbr 90
Z br 4.45
I br 35
3
Pbr 1350
R br 1.1
3I br
2 2
3 35
3
X br Z 2br R 2br 4.452 1.12 4.32
1
x1 x 2 X br 2.158
2
X m X nl x1 86.51 2.158 84.352
And
X 2 X m x 2 84.352 2.158 86.51
From eq.(3.29), per phase rotor resistance is given by
44
2
X
r2 ( R br r1 ) 2
Xm
2
86.51
1.102 0.6 1.2 0.402
84.352
Thus the parameters of the induction motor equivalent circuit are:
r1= 0.72; r2= 0.402; x1=x2=2.158; and Xm=84.352
3.8 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency f and poles P by the
equation.
120 f
Ns
p
As regards induction motor, the rotor is given by
N (1 s) N s
Where S is the slip
It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of speed control of an induction
motor are:
a) by changing the number of poles and
b) by varying the line (input) frequency.
By the above two methods, the synchronous speed of an induction motor can only be changed.
These methods are applicable only to cage induction motors
The slip can be changed by the following methods.
c) by varying the input voltage
d) by varying the rotor resistance
The methods(c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motors, whereas only the
method (c) can be applied to machines with cage rotor.
a) by changing the number of poles (Pole changing methods)
Four-pole to eight –pole connections
In pole changing induction motors, the stator winding of each phase is divided into two equal
groups of coils. These coil groups are connected in series and parallel with the current direction
being reversed only in one group, to create two different numbers of poles (even) in the ratio 2.1
respectively. When the connection is changed from series to parallel or vice versa, the current in
one group of coils is also reversed at the same time. This technique, termed the consequent pole
method, is applied to all three windings (phases). This type of induction motor has always the
squirrel cage rotor, which can adapt to any number of stator poles.
45
Figure 3.32(a) shows schematically only four coils of one phase of the windings connected in
series, along with the direction of current in them, producing eight poles in the stator. If the
current in coils 2 and 4 is reversed and the connection is changed to parallel with two coils (1
and 3, and 2 and 4) connected in series for each path, four poles are formed in the stator (Figure
3.32(b)). It may be noted that the direction of current in coils 1 and 3 remains the same. Only one
type of connection is shown.
S N S N S N S N S
1 1' 2 2' 3 3' 4 4'
1 1' 3 3' 2 2' 4 4'
+ _
(a) Eight pole (Series)
N S N S
1 1' 3 3'
1 1' 2 2' 3 3' 4 4'
+ _
4' 4 2' 2
(b) Four pole (parallel) consequent pole
Figure 3.32 Stator winding connection for pole changing induction motor
Normally, poles are changed in the ratio 2:1.This method provides two synchronous speeds. If
two independent sets of polyphase windings are used, each arranged for pole changing, four
synchronous speeds can be obtained for the induction motor. In many industrial application
induction motor with 4/6/8/12 poles are used to provide 1500/1000/750/500 synchronous speeds
respectively. Squirrel-cage motors are invariably used in this method because the rotor can
operate with any number of stator poles. It is obvious, however, that speed can be changed only
in discrete steps and that the elaborate stator winding makes the motor expensive.
Constant torque and constant horsepower operations
This type of pole changing in the stator results in constant torque or constant horsepower
operations. For constant torque operation, the change of stator winding is made from series-star
to parallel- star, while for constant horsepower operation the change is made from series-delta to
parallel-star. Regenerative braking takes place during changeover from higher to lower speeds.
46
Constant torque opération: (Y/YY)
In any pole changing (P-pole/2P-pole) induction motor, there are two equal parts as stated
above. The changeover for constant torque operation takes place as shown in Figure 3.33.
1U 2U
2U
2W 2V
1W 1U
1V
1W 1V
2W
2P 2V
P
(a) Series-star (Y) connection (b)
( 2P-pole connection) Parallel-star (YY) connection
( P-pole connection)
Low
speed High
(2P) speed
(P)
Ns
Ns N
2
(c) Torque-speed characteristics
Figure 3.33 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant torque
operation
Let V – Line voltage
I – Maximum current that the winding can carry
Then the power drawn from the supply is given by:-
1. For series-star (Y) connection ( Figure 3.33(a))
PY 3 (VI cos Y )
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure 3.33(b))
PY Y 2 3 (VI cos Y Y )
47
It is assumed that the power factor remains unchanged and the motor losses are negligible. With
the changeover of stator winding from series star to parallel star, the power drawn from the
supply is doubled. Simultaneously, the speed is also doubled. So the motor torque remains
constant. Constant torque operation is more common.
Constant horsepower operation: (/YY)
The power drawn from the supply is given by:
1. For series-delta ( ) connection (Figure 3.34(a))
P 3 VICos
2. For parallel-star connection (Figure (3.34(b))
PY Y 2 3 (VI Cos YY ) 3.46 (VI Cos YY )
After changeover from series-delta to parallel-star, the power increases slightly (about 15%), if
power factor is assumed to remain constant. The constant horsepower connection is the most
expensive, because in this case the motor size becomes the largest.
1U 2U
2U 2V
1W 1U
1V
1W 1V
2W
2V
P
2W
(b) Parallel-star (YY) connection
(a) Series-delta () connection
( P-pole connection)
( 2P-pole connection)
Low
speed High
(2P) speed
(P)
Ns Ns N
2
NS
-T
(c) Torque-speed characteristics
48
Figure 3.34 stator connections and torque-speed characteristics of induction motors for constant power
operation
b) by varying the line (input) frequency)
A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed control of induction motors.
Constant Volt/Hz operation
The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by
E 4.44 m f Tph K w
The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting drop in stator
impedance). Then, we can write
V
f
4.44 m T ph K V Hz
When the frequency is reduced, the applied voltage also must be reduced proportionally so as to
maintain constant flux, otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron losses and
magnetizing current. The maximum torque also remains constant under this condition. However,
the voltage is not varied proportionally in the lower frequency range to account for the voltage
drop in the winding resistance. This type of control (constant V/f) is used for speed control below
base frequency (line frequency of 50Hz).
As the voltage increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes above base frequency,
only constant (rated) voltage with variable frequency (frequency control) is used for speed
control. Under this condition, both flux and maximum torque decrease as the frequency is
increased.
Advantages of constant volt/Hz operations are the following:
a) Smooth speed control,
b) Small input current and improved power factor at low frequency start, and
c) Higher starting torque for low cage resistance
Maximum Torque
Neglecting the stator winding resistance, the maximum torque is
3V 2
Tmax
2syn X1 X '2
So, the maximum torque remains constant as stated earlier for constant volt/Hz ratio for
frequencies below base frequency, except for very low values of frequency (Figure 3.35). This is
taken as constant torque control with constant flux or volt/Hz ratio.
For input frequency above base frequency, only constant (input) voltage with variable frequency
is applied as stated earlier. In this case the maximum torque changes to
2
3 V
2syn X1 X 2
Tmax '
49
supplyfrequency
Where,
base frequency
With α >1 as frequency is higher than base frequency, both maximum torque and flux, as given
by volt/Hz ratio, decrease as frequency increases (as shown in Figure 3.34). This is taken as
constant power control with variable flux.
T Constant T
fbase
Constant Hp
Load
torque
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7
N
Figure 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –frequency control
The torque-speed characteristic of the load is superimposed on the motor torque-speed
characteristic. Note that the operating speeds N1…N7 are close to corresponding synchronous
speeds. In this method of speed control, therefore, the operating slip is low and the efficiency is
high.
The operating slip can be changed by
c) Varying the line voltage
Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square of the
terminal voltage. A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages is shown in
Figure 3.36.
Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower speeds, making the operation
inefficient. However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in which torque varies approximately
as the square of the speed, the power decreases significantly with decrease in speed. Therefore,
although the power lost in the rotor circuit (= sPag) may be a significant portion of the air gap
power, the air gap power itself is small and therefore the rotor will not overheat. The voltage
controller circuits are simple and, although inefficient, are suitable for fan, pump, and similar
centrifugal drives.
50
T
pu
=1 Fan Load
V 1
u
7p TL N 2
0 .70
=
V1 pu
0.5
V 1=
N1 N2 N3
N
Figure 3.36 Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages
d) Varying the rotor resistance
The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by connecting external
resistance in the rotor circuit through slip-rings. The torque- speed characteristics for four
external resistances are shown in Figure 3.37. The load torque-speed characteristic is also shown
by dashed line. By varying the external resistance 0 < Rex < Rex4, the speed of the load can be
controlled in the range of N1 < N < N5. Note that by proper adjustment of the external resistance
(Rex=Rex2), maximum starting can be obtained for the load.
3
T
Rex2 Rex1 Rex=0
Induction R
motor ex3 Load
Rex Rex
3
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 NS N
Figure 3.37 the torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances
The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency is low at
reduced speed because of higher slips. However, this control method is often employed because
of its simplicity. In application where low-speed operation is only a small proportion of the
work, low efficiency is acceptable. A typical application of the rotor, resistance control method
is the hoist drive of a shop crane. This method also can be used in fan or pump drives, where
speed variation over a small range near the top speed is required.
51
3.9 STARTING OF IM
Most induction motors-Large and Small-are rugged enough that they could be started across the
line without incurring any damage to the motor windings, although about five to eight times the
rated current flows through the stator at rated voltage at standstill. However, in large induction
motors, large starting current are objectionable in two respects:
First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently large capacity.
Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may be excessive,
resulting in reduced voltage across the motor.
Because the torque varies approximately as the square of the voltage, the starting torque may
become small at the reduced line voltage that the motor might not even start on load. Thus we
formulate the basic requirement for starting:
The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the extent that the
motor can develop sufficient torque to start (on load, if necessary)
A number of methods is available of for starting both cage-rotor and wound-rotor motors:
Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors
For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of starting depends on (i) size and design of
the motor (ii) capacity of the power lines and (iii) type of the driven load. There are primarily
two methods of starting squirrel-cage induction motors: (a) full-voltage starting and (b) reduced-
voltage starting. The full-voltage starting consists of DOL starting only. The reduced-voltage
starting has the advantage of reducing the starting current, but it produces an objectionable
reduction in the starting torque, on account of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage. Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most popular method
of starting three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of stator resistor (or reactor)
starting, auto-transformer starting and star-delta starting. The various methods are now described
in what follows.
a. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting.
As the name suggests, this method involves the direct switching of polyphase stator on to the
supply mains. The motor takes low-power factor starting current of 5 to 8 times its full-load
current, depending upon its size and design. Such large currents of short duration don't harm the
rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents may cause objectionable voltage drop in the
power supply lines feeding the induction motor. These large voltage drops cause undesirable dip
in the supply line voltage; consequently the operation of other equipments connected to the same
supply line is effected considerably. A common example is the momentary dimming of lamp and
tube-lights in the home at the instant a refrigerator motor starts. If the supply system is of
sufficient power capacity and the low-power factor starting-current surges don't cause
objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then the direct-on-line starting should be
preferred.
The relation between starting torque Tst and full-load torque Tfl is now obtained. Let Ist and Ifl be
the per-phase stator currents drawn from the supply mains corresponding to starting and full-load
conditions respectively. From Torque equation
52
1 2 R2
Tmech . I2
syn S
R2
I 22st 2
Tst
1 I 2st S 3.30
R fl
Tfl I 2
2 fl 2 I 2 fl
Sfl
Eq. (3.30) is valid in case rotor resistance remains constant. Actually, rotor resistance varies with
the frequency of rotor current; at starting rotor frequency is 50 Hz and at full load it is only a few
hertz.
Here I2st and I2fl are the per-phase rotor currents at starting and full-load conditions respectively.
If no-load current is neglected, then
Ist effective stator turns I2st effective rotor turns
or I st I 2st effective rotor to stator turns ratio
Ist Effective rotor to stator turns ratioI 2st
or
Ifl Effective rotor to stator turns ratioI 2fl
I st I 2st
or
I fl I 2 fl
2
Tst I st
From equation (1.30), Sfl
Tfl I fl
If V1 is the per phase stator voltage and ZSC is the standstill per phase leakage impedance referred
to stator, then per phase short-circuit current at standstill (or at starting) is,
V1
I sc
Z sc
Zsc R1 R 2 jX1 X 2
Where,
Note that here shunt branch of the induction motor equivalent circuit is neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,
V1
I st I sc
Zsc
Equation (3.30) can, therefore, be written as
2
Tst Isc
Sfl
Tfl I fl
3.31
53
b. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in between motor terminals and the supply
mains, as illustrated in Figure 3.38.
1
xV
3V1 3xV1
Rotor
V1
xV1
Figure 3.38 Reactor (or resistor) starting of squirrel cage induction motor
At the time of starting, some voltage drop occurs across the starting resistor or reactor and,
therefore, only a fraction x (less than 1) of the supply voltage appears across the stator terminals.
This reduces the per-phase starting current Ist drawn by the motor from the supply mains. As the
motor speeds up, the reactor is cut out in steps and finally short-circuited when the motor speed
is near to its operating speed. Since per phase voltage is reduced to xV1, see Figure 3.38 , the
per-phase starting current Ist is given by
xV1
I st xI SC 3.32
Z SC
2
Tst I st
S fl
T fl I fl
As before
2
Tst I
Or x 2 sc Sfl 3.33
Tfl I fl
In an induction motor, torque (voltage) 2
2
Starting torque with reactor or resistor starting xV1
x 2 3.34
Starting torque with direct starting V1
Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower energy loss and is
more effective in reducing the voltage, because the induction-motor power factor at starting is
quite low.
c. Autotransformer starting
A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V1 is applied to the stator terminals at the time of starting,
by means of an autotransformer as shown in Figure 3.39.
54
3-phase
Auto Transformer
ISt xISC
V1 xV1
xV1
Rotor
Figure 3.39 pertaining to auto-transformer starting of squirrel cage induction motor
This reduces the motor current and also the current drawn from the supply. After the motor has
accelerated near to its operating speed, auto-transformer is disconnected and full line voltage is
applied to the induction motor by connecting it directly across the supply mains. Note that here x
is less than 1. With autotransformer, per phase starting current in motor winding is
xV1
x I sc 3.35
Z1
If no-load current of autotransformer is neglected, then per phase output VA of an
autotransformer must be equal to its per phase input VA. That is
I stV1 xV1 (per phase starting current in motor winding)
Or I st V1 xV1 (x I sc)
Per phase starting current from the supply mains,
I st x 2.I sc 3.36
Eq. (3.35) shows that the motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x times the direct
switching current Isc ; but the per phase starting current from the supply mains is reduced to x2
times the direct switching Isc .
Now
Tst (per phasestarting current in motor winding) 2
.Sfl
Tfl (per phase motor full load current) 2
From Eq.(1.35)
Tst xI sc 2
.Sfl
Tfl I fl2
55
x2
Isc 2 .S 3.37
fl
I fl2
Per phase staring current, Ist, from the supply mains can be calculated in Eq. (3.37) with the help
of Eq. (3.36). Substitution of the value of Isc in terms of Ist gives
2
Tst 1 I
x 2 2 st .S fl
T fl x I
fl
2
I
x st .S fl
2
I 3.38
fl
The ratio of the starting to full-load torque in terms of both Ist and Isc can be obtained from Eq.
(3.37) as follows.
Tst x 2 I sc I sc
.S fl
T fl I 2fl
I st I sc
S fl 3.39
I 2fl
Per phase motor starting current in terms of Ist, from Eq. 3.35, is given by
1
x I sc x I st
x2
1 3.40
I st
x
For an induction motor, torque (voltage) 2
2
Tst with an autotransformer xV1
x 2 3.41
Tst with direct switching V1
It is from above that with an autotransformer, the starting current Ist from the mains and the
starting torque Tst are reduced to x2 times their corresponding values with DOL starting, see Eqs
(3.36) and (3.41).
d. Star-Delta Method
A Star-Delta method starting may also be employed to provide reduced voltage of start. In this
method, the normal connection of the stator windings is delta while running (Figure 3.40).
56
Stator Winding
U
Run Start
Star-Delta Switch
Figure 3.40 pertaining to the star-delta starting of a 3-phase cage induction motor
If these windings are connected in star at start, the phase voltage is reduced, resulting in less
current of starting. As the motor approaches its full-speed, the windings will be connected in
delta.
Thus, the line current under each of these connection are:
Vph VL
IY with the windings connected in Star ;
Z ph 3 Z ph
VL
I 3 with the windings connected in Deta
Z ph
So that the ratio of the current is
I V Z
Y L ph 1
I 3Z 3V 3
ph L
Showing that the current drawn from the line under a star connection is only one-third ( 1 3 ) of
that under delta connection. On the other hand, the ratio of the current in the stator windings is
Vph
I phY Z ph 1
I ph 3 Vph 3
Z ph 2
VL
Also
Tst with Star Delta Starter 3 1
2
Tst with direct switching in Delta VL 3
This shows the star-delta starter also reduce the starting torque to one-third of that produced by
direct switching in delta.
57
Example 3.10 A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current at rated
voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer starter which should give
full-load at start. Also find the line current at starting in terms of full-load current.
Solution
Here , motor starting or short-circuit current Isc is 6Ifl.
2
Tst I
x 2 sc .S fl
T fl I
fl
1 x 2 6 2 0.05
1
x 0.745
Or 1.8
or 74.5% tappings
The starting line current is
I st x 2 I sc 0.745 2 6 I fl
3.33 I fl
Example 3.11 A small 3-phase induction motor has a short-circuit current 5 times of full load
current and full load slip 5%. Determine the starting torque and starting current if starting
resistance starter is used to reduce the impressed voltage to 60% of normal voltage.
Solution
Starting current,
Ist 0.6ISC 0.6 5I fl 3I fl
Starting torque,
2
I
Tst Tfl st Sfl Tfl 3 0.05 0.45Tfl i.e. 45% of full load torque.
2
Ifl
Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors
The methods used for starting squirrel cage motors can also be employed for starting wound-
rotor motors, but it is usually not done so because then the advantages of wound-rotor induction
motors can't be fully realized. The simplest and cheapest method of starting wound-rotor
induction motors is by means of added rotor resistance, with full-line voltage across the stator
terminals. It has already been discussed that at the time of start, the addition of external
resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction motor.
i. decreases its starting current
ii. increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and
iii. Improves its starting power factor.
At the time of start, the entire external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. As the rotor speeds
up, the external resistance is decreased in steps so that motor torque tends to remain maximum
during the accelerating period. Finally, under normal operation, the external resistance is fully
58
cut off and the slip rings are short-circuited so that motor now develops full-load torque at low
value of slip for which it is designed.
Calculation of Resistance of elements (or sections)
Consider one phase of the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r2 and
standstill leakage reactance x2. Let R1, R2 ,R3 …….Rn be resistance of the n resistance elements
(or sections) and R1’ , R2’, R3’,….Rn’, Rn+1’ be the total resistance in each phase of the rotor
circuit on 1st ,2nd ,3rd ,…,nth and (n+1)th stud respectively as shown in Figure 3.40(a) , such that
R1 1+ R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R2 2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R3 3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
:
Rn+1 2.
Studs
R1 R2 R3 Rn-1 Rn
1 2 3 n-1 n n+1
r2
R 1' R2' R3' Rn-1' Rn' Rn+1'
Slip rings
(a)
Input
current
S1
I1max S2 S3 S4 S5 Sn+1=Sm
I1min
Rn cutout
R1 cutout
R2 cutout
R3 cutout
R4 cutout
Time, t
(b)
Figure 3.41 (a) pertaining to the design of starter for wound-rotor IM; (b) Variation of input current with
time
59
Note that Figure 3.41(a) illustrates n-elements starter, n-section starter, (n+1) stud starter or n-
step starter. For calculation of the section resistances, the following assumptions are made:
I. During starting time , a constant load torque is assumed
II. The stator leakage impedance and its no-load current are neglected
III. Stator current is taken to fluctuate between fixed limits I1max (maximum value) and I1min
(minimum value) as shown in Figure 3.41(b).
At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor circuit resistance is R 1’. When
the supply is switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I1max and its value is given by
V1
I 1 max 3.42
2
R1'
x 2
S1
Note that at the time of start, slip S1 = 1
On first stud, R1’ remains in the circuit until the motor has started and the current has fallen from
I1max to I1min . At the same time the slip falls from S1 to S2
V1
I 1min 3.43
2
R1'
x 2
S2
As soon as I1min is reached at stud 1, resistance R1 is cut out by moving the handle from stud 1 to
stud 2. During the notching process (the process of moving the handle from one stud to the next),
the speed is assumed to remain constant, i.e. the slip remains as S2 but current at stud 2 becomes
I1max as illustrated in Figure 3.41(b).
V1
I 1 max 3.44
2
R '
2
x 2
S2
At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip becomes S3 and current decreases to I1min,
V1
I 1 min 3.45
2
R2'
x 2
S3
During the next notching process, i.e., at the third stud when R2 is cut out,
V1
I 1 max 3.46
2
R3'
x 2
S3
and
60
V1
I1 min . 3.47
2
R '3
x2
S4
and so on
From Eqs. (3.42), (3.44), (3.46) etc, we get
V1
I1 max
2
R 1'
x2
S1
V1
2
R '2
x2
S2
V1
................
2
R '3
x2
S3
From the above it follows that
R1' R '2 R '3
S1 S2 S3
3.48
R' R' r
......... n n 1 2
Sn Sn 1 Sfl
Where Sfl = Sn+1 is the slip under normal operating conditions when all external resistance in
rotor circuit is reduced to zero and the input current is I1max .
From Eqs. (3.43), (3.45), (3.47), etc., we get
R1' R2' R3'
S 2 S3 S4
3.49
R' R' R'
......... n 1 n n
S n S n 1 S fl
From Eq. (3.48), we get
61
S 2 S3 S 4
S1 S2 S3
S S S
...... n n 1 fl
S n 1 Sn Sn
R '2 R '3 R '4
R1' R '2 R '3
R 'n 1 R 'n
.......
R 'n 2 R 'n 1
R 'n 1 r
2 (say) 3.50
R 'n R 'n
Since the slip S1=1, the total resistance in rotor circuit on the first step (or first stud) from Eq.
(3.48), is
S1 r
R1' r2 2 3.51
S fl S fl
From Eq. 3.50,
R '2 R1' , R '3 R '2 R '2 2
R '4 R '3 R '2 2 R1' 3
R 'n 1 R1' n
or r2 R1' n
3.52
’
Substituting the values of R1 from Eq. (3.51) in Eq. (3.52), we get
r
r2 2 n
Sfl
or n Sfl
1
or (Sfl )n 3.53
Therefore, resistances of the sections are:
R 1 R 1' R '2 R 1' 1 3.54
R '2 R '2 R '3
R '2 1 R 1' 1 R 1
R 3 R '3 R '4 R '3 1
R '2 1 2 R 1
62
Similarly
R 4 3 R 1
R n n 1R1 3.55
The slip Sfl provided I1max=Ifl. In case I1max is different from Ifl, slip Sfl should be calculated
accordingly and then from Eq. (3.53), α can be obtained. Once R1’is determined by using
Eq.(3.51), first the resistance element R1 is obtained by using Eq.(3.54) and then R2, R3, R4…….
Can be calculated from Eq. (3.55).
Example 3.13 Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase, 400-
V, wound-rotor induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum starting current is
limited to its full-load value. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.015-Ω.
Solution
For a 4-step starter, there are 4-sections i.e. n=4.
Here, Sfl=3%=0.03
1 1
( S fl ) 0.03 0.416
n 4
The total resistance of rotor circuit at the moment of starting
r2 0.015
R1' 0.5
S fl 0.03
The resistances of various elements are:
R1=R1’(1-)= 0.5(1-0.416)=0.292
R2=R1=0.416 x 0.292 = 0.121
R3=2R1=R2=0.416 x 0.121 = 0.051
R4=3R1=2R2=R3=0.416 x 0.051 = 0.021
Checking :
R’1=R1+R2+R3+R4+r2 =0.292+0.121+0.051+0.021+0.015= 0.5
63
APPLICATIONS OF POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
For loads requiring low starting torques and substantially constant speeds, squirrel-cage
induction motor is the best choice, because of its ruggedness, simplicity, low cost and
reduced maintenance charges. Squirrel cage motor may be designed with low rotor
resistance or with high rotor resistance. As stated before, a high rotor resistance gives
better starting conditions but poor running performance. On the other hand, a cage motor
with low rotor resistance gives poor starting conditions but better running performance. In
view of this, the rotor-circuit resistance should be chosen judiciously at the design stage so
that there is a compromise between its starting conditions and running performance.
Squirrel cage motors with relatively low rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 5%) are used
for fans, centrifugal pumps, most machinery tools, wood-working tools etc. Cage motors
with relatively high rotor resistance (full-load slip 3 to 7%) are used for compressors,
crushers, reciprocating pumps. Squirrel cage motors with still higher values of rotor-circuit
resistance (full-load slip 7 to 16%) are used for intermittent loads like punching presses,
shears, hoists, elevators etc.
A wound-rotor induction motor is used for loads requiring severe starting conditions or for
loads requiring speed control. A wound rotor induction motor is more expensive than a
squirrel cage motor and also it requires more maintenance because of the brushes and slip
rings. A wound-rotor motor, also called slip-ring motor, may be used for hoists, cranes,
elevators, compressors etc.
The relative advantages of cage motor over a wound-rotor motor of the same power rating
are given below.
I. A cage rotor requires considerably less conductor material than a wound rotor, conse -
quently I2 R loss in cage rotor is less. Therefore, cage motor is a little more efficient
than a wound-rotor motor.
II. Wound-motor construction requires slip rings, brushes, short-circuiting devices etc.
As a result of it, a wound-rotor motor is costlier than a cage induction motor.
III. A squirrel-cage rotor has very small length of overhang; therefore, it has low rotor
overhang leakage flux. This has the effect of resulting in low leakage reactance x 2 for
a cage rotor than for a wound rotor. Consequently, the diameter of circle diagram for
a cage motor is greater than for a wound-rotor motor. This shows that a cage motor
has more pull-out torque, greater maximum power output and better operating power
factor as compared to a wound-rotor induction motor.
IV. Cage motor is more rugged and requires no slip rings, brushes etc. therefore, its main -
tenance charges are low.
V. Cage rotor can be cooled better because of its bare end-rings.
VI. The disadvantages of cage motor as compared to a wound rotor motor are its small
starting torque for very large starting current and its poor starting power factor. In
addition to it, the total energy lost during starting of cage motor is much more than
with the wound-rotor motor and this fact is very important where frequent starting
of large number of motors is required.
64
PROBLEMS ON INDUCTION MACHINES
3.1. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, 7.5 kw induction motor runs at 1,440 rpm. Determine: i) the slip, ii)
the slip-speed. Ans.i) 0.04 ; ii) 60 r.p.m
3.2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 rpm. For this motor , calculate
the following:
a) Number of poles
b) Full-load slip and rotor frequency
c) Speed of stator field with respect to
i. Stator structure and
ii. Rotor structure and
d) Speed of rotor field with respect to
i. Rotor structure
ii. Stator structure
iii. Stator field
Ans. a) 4; b) 4% & 2Hz; c)1500rpm; 60rpm; d) 60rpm; 1500rpm; 0
3.3. A 3-phase, 4-pole alternator driven at 1500 rpm is supplying an induction motor which has full
load speed of 960 r.p.m: Determine (i) the number of poles and (ii) the percentage slip.
Ans.i) 6 ; ii) 4%
3.4. A 4-pole, 50Hz induction motor runs at 415 rpm Deduce the frequency of the curree rotor
windings and the slip. Ans. 1.584 Hz ; 3.167%
3.5. A 4-pole. 50Hz induction motor has an emf in the rotor, the frequency of which is 2 Hz.
Determine (i) the synchronous speed (ii) the slip iii) the speed of the motor.
Ans.i)1500rpm;ii) 4%; iii) 1440 r.p.m
3.6. A 200-Kw, 3300-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz star-connected slip-ring induction motor has a star connected
rotor. Stator to rotor turns ratio is 3.2.rotor resistance and leakage reactance are 0.1-Ω and 1-Ω
respectively. Neglecting stator impedance ,find
a) Current and torque at starting on rated voltage with slip-rings short circuited and
b) The external resistance required to reduce the starting current to 50-A with across-the line
starting. Compare starting torque under these conditions.
Ans. a)185.14A; 1005.5N.m b) 35.681 ; 3.484; 2628.8 N.m
3.7. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 1440 rpm, 50 Hz induction motor has star connected rotor winding , having a
resistance of 0.2 per phase and a standstill leakage resistance of 1 per phase. When the stator
is energized at rated voltage and frequency, the rotor induced emf at standstill is 120-V per
phase.
a) Calculate the rotor current, rotor power factor and torque both at starting and at full-load and
compare these results.
b) If an external resistance of 1 per phase is inserted in rotor circuit, calculate rotor current, rotor
power factor and torque at the time of starting.
65
Ans. a) at starting:117.67A; 0.196 lagging; 52.36N.m. and at full-load: 23.53 A ; 0.98 lagging;
52.87 N.m. b) at starting: 76.82 A ; 0.768 lagging; 135.25 N.m.
3.8. In s 6-pole, 3-phase. 50Hz induction motor with a star-connected rotor, the rotor resistance per
phase is 0.3, the reactance at standstill is 1.5 per phase, and the emf between slip rings on
open circuit is 175 V. Calculate :
(i) slip (ii) rotor emf per phase (iii) rotor reactance per phase if full load speed is 960rpm.
Ans.(i) 4% (ii) 4.05 V (iii) 0.06
3.9. A 50 Hz, 8-pole induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. The rotor resistance and standstill
reactance are 0-01 and 0.1 per phase respectively. Find the ratio of maximum to full load
torque and the speed at which the maximum torque occurs.
Ans.1.45; 675 rpm
3.10. An induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.02 and a standstill reactance of 0.1. How much
external resistance must be added in the rotor circuit so as to get the maximum torque at starting.
Ans. 0.08
3.11. For an induction motor, the starting torque is 1.6 times the full load torque and the rnaximum
torque is 2 times the full load torque. Determine the percentage reduction in the rotor circuit
resistance so that the full load slip is 0.04%. Neglect the stator impedance.
Ans.70%
3.12. A 3-phase induction motor is fed with a power of 48 kw. If the stator losses are 1.2 kw, find the
mechanical power developed and copper losses in the rotor, when the slip is 3%.
Ans. 45.396kW; 1.404kW
3.13. The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor running at 975 rpm is 40kW
. The stator losses are 2 kw and the friction and windage losses total 2 kw. Calculate (i) the slip
(ii) the copper loss (iii) the output power and (iv) the efficiency. Ans. i) 2.5%;
ii) 950W; iii) 35.05kW ; iv) 87.6%
3.14. A 20Kw, 6-pole, 400V, 50Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.02. If the torque
lost in mechanical (friction & windage) form constitutes about 20 N.m., find the rotor ohmic
loss, motor input and efficiency. The total stator losses are 900 Watts.
Ans. 450W; 23.4kW; 85.47%
66
3.15. A 3-phase , 400 V, 50Hz star-connected induction motor gave the following test results:
No load: 400 V, 7.5A, 0.135 power factor
Blocked rotor: 150 V, 35A, 0.44 power factor
The ratio of standstill leakage reactance of stator and rotor is estimated as 2. If the motor is
running at a speed of 900rpm, determine
a) Net mechanical power output
b) The net torque and
c) Efficiency of the motor
Assume stator to rotor copper losses to be equal.
Ans. Psh=8648.98 W; Tsh=86.033 N.m;= 86.23%
3.16. Design the 5-sections of a 6-stud starter for a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor. The full-load
slip is 2% and the maximum starting current is limited to twice the full-load current. Rotor
resistance per phase is 0.03-Ω.
Ans. 0.356 Ω; 0.187 Ω; 0.098 Ω; 0.052 Ω;0.027 Ω
3.17. A squirrel induction motor has a full-load slip of 0.05. The motor starting current at rated voltage
is 6 times its full-load current. Find the tapping on the auto-transformer starter which should give
full-load at start. Also find the line current at starting in terms of full-load current.
Ans. 74.5%; 3.33 Ifl
3.18. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a short-circuit current of 5 times the full-load
current. Its full-load slip is 5%. Calculate the starting torque as percentage of full-load torque if
the motor is started by
a) Direct-on-line starter
b) Start-delta and
c) Auto-transformer starter, limiting the motor starting current to twice the motor full-load current.
d) What is the percentage auto-transformer tapping under (c) case?
Ans. a) 1.25%; b) 0.417; c) 0.20; d) 40%
3.19. Calculate the values of resistance elements of a 4-step starter for a 3-phase, 400-V, wound-rotor
induction motor. The full-load slip is 3% and the maximum starting current is limited to its full-
load value. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.015-Ω.
Ans. 0.291 Ω; 0.121 Ω; 0.051 Ω; 0.021 Ω
67
You might also like
- Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Lecturers: Michael G. (M.SC)100% (1)Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Lecturers: Michael G. (M.SC)109 pages
- Electrical Engineering - Engineering - Switchgear and Protection - Induction Type Relay - NotesNo ratings yetElectrical Engineering - Engineering - Switchgear and Protection - Induction Type Relay - Notes14 pages
- Comparison Between VSI and CSI Fed Induction Motor Drives in MATLAB Environment Based On THD Performance100% (2)Comparison Between VSI and CSI Fed Induction Motor Drives in MATLAB Environment Based On THD Performance71 pages
- Starting Inrush Current Mitigation During Reswitching of Three-Phase Induction Motors by Discontinuous Phase-Controlled SwitchingNo ratings yetStarting Inrush Current Mitigation During Reswitching of Three-Phase Induction Motors by Discontinuous Phase-Controlled Switching6 pages
- EE3401 QB 01 2MARKS - by LearnEngineering - inNo ratings yetEE3401 QB 01 2MARKS - by LearnEngineering - in9 pages
- Modeling of The Solid Rotor Induction MotorNo ratings yetModeling of The Solid Rotor Induction Motor5 pages
- Electrical Machines Induction and Synchronous MachinesNo ratings yetElectrical Machines Induction and Synchronous Machines42 pages
- Methods of Improving Transient StabilityNo ratings yetMethods of Improving Transient Stability2 pages
- Subject Name: Electric Drive Subject Code: 6EE4-05: Introduction: Objective, Scope and Outcome of The CourseNo ratings yetSubject Name: Electric Drive Subject Code: 6EE4-05: Introduction: Objective, Scope and Outcome of The Course9 pages
- P.F. & P.F Improvement of Using CapacitorNo ratings yetP.F. & P.F Improvement of Using Capacitor3 pages
- Prof. Ch. SAI BABU: Online Gate Coaching Classes100% (1)Prof. Ch. SAI BABU: Online Gate Coaching Classes103 pages
- Class18 - Starting and Speed Control of DC MotorsNo ratings yetClass18 - Starting and Speed Control of DC Motors13 pages
- 6 Solid State Motor Control Induction Motor Speed Control PDFNo ratings yet6 Solid State Motor Control Induction Motor Speed Control PDF22 pages
- Eet418 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, June 2023No ratings yetEet418 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, June 20232 pages
- Lecture 2 - Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor100% (1)Lecture 2 - Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor21 pages
- Lecture 6 - Electromechnical Relays - Attracted Armature TypeNo ratings yetLecture 6 - Electromechnical Relays - Attracted Armature Type17 pages
- Speed Control of Wound Rotor Induction Motor Using Rotor Resistance Control AimNo ratings yetSpeed Control of Wound Rotor Induction Motor Using Rotor Resistance Control Aim3 pages
- Sub Synchronous Resonance: Facts ControllersNo ratings yetSub Synchronous Resonance: Facts Controllers17 pages
- Eee-Vi-Switchgear & Protection (10ee62) - Notes PDFNo ratings yetEee-Vi-Switchgear & Protection (10ee62) - Notes PDF92 pages
- Starting & Speeed Control of Three Phase Induction MotorsNo ratings yetStarting & Speeed Control of Three Phase Induction Motors9 pages
- Hybrid Electric Vehicles (Parallel Mode)No ratings yetHybrid Electric Vehicles (Parallel Mode)33 pages
- Bsco5, Bse5, Bset5, Bsm5 - Electrical MachinesNo ratings yetBsco5, Bse5, Bset5, Bsm5 - Electrical Machines2 pages
- 300+ TOP Single Phase Induction Motors MCQs PDF 2021No ratings yet300+ TOP Single Phase Induction Motors MCQs PDF 202131 pages
- Simulation of Some Power System, Control System and Power Electronics Case Studies Using Matlab and PowerWorld SimulatorFrom EverandSimulation of Some Power System, Control System and Power Electronics Case Studies Using Matlab and PowerWorld SimulatorNo ratings yet
- Machining Forces and Merchant's Circle Diagram (MCD) : (I) Benefit of Knowing and Purpose of Determining Cutting ForcesNo ratings yetMachining Forces and Merchant's Circle Diagram (MCD) : (I) Benefit of Knowing and Purpose of Determining Cutting Forces10 pages
- HMT Lecture 3 - Two-Dimensional Steady State ConductionNo ratings yetHMT Lecture 3 - Two-Dimensional Steady State Conduction7 pages
- (I) Mechanism of Chip Formation in MachiningNo ratings yet(I) Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining16 pages
- Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology 3.1 Chapter Overview /introductionNo ratings yetChapter Three: Research Design and Methodology 3.1 Chapter Overview /introduction1 page
- Determinants and Outcome of Customer Satisfaction at The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia: Evidence From Addis AbabaNo ratings yetDeterminants and Outcome of Customer Satisfaction at The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia: Evidence From Addis Ababa13 pages
- Project:-Jigjiga-Gelelsh-Deghamedo - Segeg Road ProjectNo ratings yetProject:-Jigjiga-Gelelsh-Deghamedo - Segeg Road Project10 pages
- Department of Business Management Course: - Operational Research Individual Assignment 3No ratings yetDepartment of Business Management Course: - Operational Research Individual Assignment 36 pages
- DC Compound Motor PPT in PSG Tech CoimbatoreNo ratings yetDC Compound Motor PPT in PSG Tech Coimbatore9 pages
- Multiple Choice Questions With Answers On Power Electronics and Drives100% (1)Multiple Choice Questions With Answers On Power Electronics and Drives32 pages
- 770-02 24 Volt Electrical System Trainer PDFNo ratings yet770-02 24 Volt Electrical System Trainer PDF1 page
- Control Valve Basics - Sizing & SelectionNo ratings yetControl Valve Basics - Sizing & Selection62 pages
- Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals 1st Edition Iqbal Husain 2024 scribd download100% (2)Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals 1st Edition Iqbal Husain 2024 scribd download71 pages
- H1 Bent Axis Variable Displacement Motors Size 060 Size 080 Size 110 Size 160No ratings yetH1 Bent Axis Variable Displacement Motors Size 060 Size 080 Size 110 Size 16092 pages
- He Asked Me To Make Propeller and Shaft Arrangment....... : BadwalNo ratings yetHe Asked Me To Make Propeller and Shaft Arrangment....... : Badwal28 pages
- SA 07.2 - 14.6 Actuador Eléctrico Multivueltas MonofásicoNo ratings yetSA 07.2 - 14.6 Actuador Eléctrico Multivueltas Monofásico4 pages
- Surface Vehicle Standard SAE - J1309-1996No ratings yetSurface Vehicle Standard SAE - J1309-19966 pages
- Electrical Machines and Drives Fundamentals and Advanced Modelling 1st Edition by Jan Melkebeek 331972729X 9783319727295 instant download100% (2)Electrical Machines and Drives Fundamentals and Advanced Modelling 1st Edition by Jan Melkebeek 331972729X 9783319727295 instant download64 pages
- Sources and Characteristics of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull in Three-Phase Cage Induction Motors With Axial-Varying Rotor EccentricityNo ratings yetSources and Characteristics of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull in Three-Phase Cage Induction Motors With Axial-Varying Rotor Eccentricity13 pages