EEE 3201 Power System I

Lectures for B.Sc. Students

Semester: L/T - 3/2

Md. Minarul Islam, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
Contents

➢ Introduction to transmission lines

➢ Representation of Transmission Line

➢ Modeling Short Transmission Line

➢ Voltage Regulation on Short Transmission Line

➢ Problem Solving
 Main Components of Overhead Lines.

❖Conductors

❖Supports (Poles or Towers)

❖Insulators

❖Cross arms

❖Miscellaneous items (phase

plates, danger plates, lightning
arrestors, anti-climbing wires,
dampers, spacers etc.)
 Transmission Line General Introduction to design problem
❑ In overhead lines the conductors are suspended from the tower and insulated from
it and from each other by insulators, the number of which is determined by the
voltage of the line.
❑ Each insulator string contains a few
number insulators. This number depends
on kV level of the transmission line.

❑ Among the conductors, the top

conductors are EARTH WIRE which are
electrically connected to the tower and
are therefore at ground potential.

❑ These Earth wires are also referred as

sheild wires because they sheild the
phase conductos from lightning strokes.

❑ Other conductors are phase conductors.

 Transmission Line General Introduction to design problem

❑ A common problem in the design and operation of a power system is the

maintenance of the voltage within specified limits at various points in the
system.

❑ To understand the voltage control problem, the mathematical relationship

among voltage, current and power need to be developed. Then from the
relationship, it becomes easy to calculate those parameters at any point on a
transmission line, provided we know these values at one point , usually at
one end of the line.

❑ From the mathematical relationship, the effects of the parameters of the line
on bus voltages and the flow of power can be understand.

❑ Transmission lines are frequently attacked by lightning. Therefore, we may

consider a lossless lines to indicate how problems arise due to surges caused
by lighting and switching.
Contents

➢ Introduction to transmission lines

➢ Representation of Transmission Line

➢ Modeling Short Transmission Line

➢ Voltage Regulation on Short Transmission Line

➢ Problem Solving
 Representation of Transmission Line

Classification of Transmission line

Short-length lines: length< 80 km (50 mi)

Medium-length lines: 80 km< length<240 km (150 mi)

Long lines: length > 240 km, it can be extended up to 320 km

❖ A transmission line has four physical parameters such as resistance, conductance,

inductance and capacitance. These four parameters are uniformly distributed
along the line.

❖ For design purpose, these four parameters can be considered as lumped which
give good accuracy for short and medium length lines.
 Representation of Transmission Line

❖ Usually, the shunt conductance of an overhead transmission line is neglected

without loss of accuracy in calculating voltage and current.

❖ Therefore, with R, L and C, an overhead transmission line can be represented as

follows.

Fig. 1 Modeling of an overhead transmission line.

 Representation of Transmission Line

Fig. 1 Modeling of an overhead transmission line.

❑ For a short transmission line,
only series inductance and
resistance are considered in
their modeling without loss
of accuracy .

Fig. 2 Modeling of an overhead short transmission line.

 Representation of Transmission Line
❑ Medium and long transmission
line can be represented by the
same Fig. 1. However, the
relationship between voltage and
current will be corresponding to
the characteristics of the
respective line.
Fig. 1 Modeling of an overhead transmission line.

❑ Normally, transmission lines are operated with balanced three-phase loads.

Although the lines are not spaced equilaterally and not transposed, the resulting
dissymmetry is slight and the phases are considered to be balanced.

❑ In order to distinguish between the total series impedance of a line and the series
impedance per unit length, the following nomenclature is adopted :
z = series impedance per unit length per phase
y = shunt admittance per unit length per phase to neutral
l = length of line
Z = zl = total series impedance per phase
Y = yl = total shunt admittance per phase to neutral
Contents

➢ Introduction to transmission lines

➢ Representation of Transmission Line

➢ Modeling Short Transmission Line

➢ Voltage Regulation on Short Transmission Line

➢ Problem Solving
 Modeling Short Transmission Line

❑ Fig. 3 shows the equivalent circuit of a short transmission line, where 𝐼𝑆 and 𝐼𝑅 are
the sending- and receiving-end currents, respectively, and 𝑉𝑆 and 𝑉𝑅 are the sending-
and receiving-end line-to-neutral voltages.
❑ The circuit is solved as a simple ac series circuit. So
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 (6.1) 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍 (6.2)

Where 𝑍 = 𝑧𝑙

Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where

R and L are values for the entire length of the line.
Contents

➢ Introduction to transmission lines

➢ Representation of Transmission Line

➢ Modeling Short Transmission Line

➢ Voltage Regulation on Short Transmission Line

➢ Problem Solving
 Modeling Short Transmission Line

❑ The effect of the variation of the power factor of the load on the voltage regulation
of a line is most easily understood for the short line and therefore will be
considered at this time.

❑ Voltage regulation of a transmission line is the rise in voltage at the receiving end,
expressed in percent of full-load voltage, when full load at a specified power factor
is removed while the sending-end voltage is held constant.

❑ The voltage regulation in percentage is expressed as in (6.3).

𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 (6.3)
𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿

where 𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 is the magnitude of receiving-end voltage at no load and 𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿 is

the magnitude of receiving-end voltage at full load with 𝑉𝑆 constant.
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
❑ After the load on a short transmission line, represented by the circuit of Fig. 3, is
removed, the voltage at the receiving end is equal to the voltage at the sending end.

❑ In Fig. 3, with the load connected, the receiving-end voltage is designated by 𝑉𝑅 , and
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿 . The sending-end voltage is 𝑉𝑆 , and 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 .

Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where R and L are

values for the entire length of the line.
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
❖ The phasor diagrams are drawn for the same magnitudes of the receiving-end voltage and
current and show that a larger value of the sending-end voltage is required to maintain a
given receiving-end voltage when the receiving- end current is lagging the voltage than
when the same current and voltage are in phase.

❖ A still smaller sending-

end voltage is required
to maintain the given
receiving-end voltage
when the receiving-
end current leads the
voltage.
Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where
R and L are values for the entire length of the line.
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
❖ The voltage drop is the same in the series impedance of the line in all cases; because of
the different power factors, however, the voltage drop is added to the receiving - end
voltage at a different angle in each case.
❖ The regulation is greatest for lagging power factors and least, or even negative, for
leading power factors.

❖ The inductive
reactance of a
transmission line is
larger than the
resistance, and the
principle of
regulation illustrated
in phasor diagram is
true for any load
supplied by a
predominantly
inductive circuit. Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where
R and L are values for the entire length of the line.
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
❖ The magnitudes of the voltage drops 𝐼𝑅 𝑅 and 𝐼𝑅 𝑋𝐿 for a short line have been exaggerated
with respect to 𝑉𝑅 in drawing the phasor diagrams in order to illustrate the point more
clearly.

❖ The relation
between power
factor and
regulation for
longer lines is
similar to that for
short lines but is
not visualized so
easily.
Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where
R and L are values for the entire length of the line.
Contents

➢ Introduction to transmission lines

➢ Representation of Transmission Line

➢ Modeling Short Transmission Line

➢ Voltage Regulation on Short Transmission Line

➢ Problem Solving
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
Problem 1. A 300 MVA 20 kV three-phase generator has a sub-transient reactance of 20%.
The generator supplies a number of synchronous motors over a 64 km transmission line
having transformers at both ends, as shown on the one-line diagram of Fig. 5.
The motors, all rated 13.2 kV, are represented by just two equivalent motors. The neutral of
one motor M1 is grounded through reactance. The neutral of the second motor M2 is not
connected to ground (an unusual condition). Rated inputs to the motors are 200 MVA and
100 MVA for M1 and M2, respectively. For both motors sub-transient reactance = 20%.
The three-phase transformer T1 is rated 350 MVA, 230/20 kV with leakage reactance of 10%.
Transformer T2 is composed of three single-phase transformers, each rated 127/13.2 kV, 100
MVA with leakage reactance of 10%.
Series reactance of the transmission line is 0.5 Ohm/km. Draw the reactance diagram with
all reactances marked in per unit. Select the generator rating as base in the generator circuit.

FIGURE 5 One-line diagram

 Modeling Short Transmission Line
Solution.
The three-phase rating of transformer T2 is 3 × 100 = 300 𝑀𝑉𝐴

127 220
and its line-to-line voltage ratio 3× = 𝑘𝑉
13.2 13.2

A base of 300 MVA, 20 kV in the generator circuit requires a 300 MVA base in all
parts of the system and the following voltage bases:

In the transmission line: 230 kV (since T1 is rated 230/20 kV)

13.2
In the motor circuit: 230 × 220 = 13.8 𝑘𝑉
 Modeling Short Transmission Line

These based are shown in parentheses on the one-line diagram of Fig. 6.5. The
reactances of the transformers converted to the proper base are

300
Transformer T1: 𝑋 = 0.1 × 350 = 0.0857 𝑝𝑢

13.2 2 300
Transformer T2: 𝑋 = 0.1 × × = 0.0915 𝑝𝑢
13.8 300

230 2
The base impedance of the transmission line is = 176.3 Ω
300
0.5 × 64
and the reactance of the line is = 0.1815 𝑝𝑢
176.3
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
13.2 2 300
Reactance 𝑋𝑑" of motor M1: 𝑋 = 0.2 × × = 0.2745 𝑝𝑢
13.8 200

13.2 2 300
Reactance 𝑋𝑑" of motor M2: 𝑋 = 0.2 × × = 0.5490 𝑝𝑢
13.8 100

Figure 6 is the required

reactance diagram when
transformer phase shifts
are omitted.
FIGURE 6 Reactance diagram
 Modeling Short Transmission Line
Problem 2. If the motors M1 and M2 of Example 6.1 have inputs of 120 and 60 MW,
respectively, at 13.2 kV, and both operate at unit power factor, find the voltage at the
terminal of the generator and the voltage regulation of the line.

FIGURE 5 One-line diagram

Solution:

Together the
motors take 180
MW, or 180/300 =
0.6 pu.

FIGURE 6 Reactance diagram

 Modeling Short Transmission Line

Therefore, with V and I at the motors in per unit 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 0.6 𝑝𝑢

With phase-a voltage at the motor terminals as reference, we have

13.2
𝑉= = 0.9565∠00 𝑝𝑢
13.8
0.6
𝐼= = 0.6273∠00 𝑝𝑢
0.9565

FIGURE 5 One-line diagram

 Modeling Short Transmission Line

Phase-a per unit voltages at other points of Fig. 6 are

At m: 𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 = 0.9565 + 𝑗0.0574 = 0.9582∠3.4340 𝑝𝑢

At l: 𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 + 𝑗0.1815 = 0.9565 + 𝑗0.1713
= 0.9717∠10.1540 𝑝𝑢
At k:
𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 + 𝑗0.1815 + 𝑗0.0857
= 0.9565 + 𝑗0.2250 = 0.9826∠13.2370 𝑝𝑢

FIGURE 6 Reactance diagram

 Modeling Short Transmission Line
Phase-a per unit voltages at other points of Fig. 6 are

At m: 𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 = 0.9565 + 𝑗0.0574 = 0.9582∠3.4340 𝑝𝑢

At l: 𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 + 𝑗0.1815 = 0.9565 + 𝑗0.1713
= 0.9717∠10.1540 𝑝𝑢
At k:
𝑉 = 0.9565∠00 + 0.6273 𝑗0.0915 + 𝑗0.1815 + 𝑗0.0857
= 0.9565 + 𝑗0.2250 = 0.9826∠13.2370 𝑝𝑢

The voltage regulation of the line is

0.9826 − 0.9582
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 = 2.55%
0.9582

And the magnitude of the voltage at the generator terminals is 0.9826 × 20 = 16.652 𝑘𝑉

If it is desired to show the phase shifts due to Y-Δ transformers, the angles of the phase-a
voltages at m and l should be increased by 300. Then the angle of the phase-a current in
the line should also be increased by 300 from 00.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line

❑ The shunt admittance, usually pure capacitance, is included in the calculations for a line
of medium length.

❑ If the total shunt admittance of the line is divided into two equal parts placed at the
sending and receiving ends of the line, the circuit is called a nominal π as shown in Fig.
6.7.

❑ To obtain an expression for 𝑉𝑆 , we note that the current in the capacitance at the
receiving end is 𝑉𝑅 𝑌/2 and the current in the series arm is 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 𝑌/2.

IZ

IC

FIGURE 6 .7 Nominal - π circuit of a medium-length transmission line.

 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
Then, KCL at r node:
𝑌 (6.4)
𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅
2
So, 𝑌 𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑍 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 𝑍 = 𝑉𝑅 1 + + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 (6.5)
2 2
Now KCL at s node:
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝐼𝑍 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 (6.6)
2 2 2

IZ

IC

FIGURE 6 .7 Nominal - π circuit of a medium-length transmission line.

 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line

Put 𝑉𝑆 from (6.5) in to (6.6), we get

𝑌𝑍 𝑌 𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 1 + + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
2 2 2
𝑌𝑍 𝑌 𝑌𝑍 𝑌 𝑌𝑍 𝑌 𝑌𝑍
= 𝑉𝑅 1 + + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + + 𝐼𝑅 1 + (6.7)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Equations (6.5) and (6.7) can be expressed as
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) Where 𝐴 = 1 + =𝐷 𝐶 = 2+
2 2 2
(6.10)
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9) 𝐵=𝑍
IZ
A and D unitless, B
in Ohms, C in Mhos
or Siemens. IC
These ABCD
constants are called
the generalized
circuit constant of the
transmission line.
FIGURE 6 .7 Nominal - π circuit of a medium-length transmission line.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) Where, 𝐴= 1+ =𝐷 𝐶 = 2+
2 2 2
(6.10)
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9) 𝐵=𝑍

❖ These constants apply to any linear, passive, and bilateral four-terminal networks
having two pairs of terminals.
Let, 𝐼𝑅 = 0, → No load condition at receiving end. Then from equation (6.8). Then
𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 So, 𝑉𝑅 =
𝐴
𝑉𝑆
If, 𝑉𝑅 = 0, → receiving end short circuited. So, from equation (6.8). Then 𝐵 =
𝐼𝑅
The percentage regulation can be calculated using constant A. See below,

𝑉𝑆 /|𝐴| − 𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿 (6.11)
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Medium Length Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅 (6.9)
𝑌𝑍
𝐴= 1+ =𝐷
2
𝐵=𝑍 (6.10)
𝑌𝑍 𝑌
𝐶 = 2+
2 2

Here are ABCD constants for various networks and combinations of networks.
 Modeling Long Transmission Line

In long transmission line, parameters are considered distributed rather than lumped for
exact solution.
Fig. 6.8 shows a schematic diagram of a transmission line showing one phase and the
neutral return.

Fig. 6.8 Schematic diagram of a transmission line showing one phase and the neutral return.
Nomenclature for the line and the elemental length are indicated.

Here Z and Y are considered uniformly distributed.

 Modeling Long Transmission Line

Fig. 6.8,
Consider a differential length dx in the line at x distance from receiving end.

So, for dx section, zdx → series impedance, ydx → shunt admittance.

V and I are phasors, which vary with x. 𝑑2𝑉
= 𝑦𝑧𝑉
𝑑𝑥 2
From Fig. 6.8, So, 𝑑𝑉 𝑑2𝑉 𝑑𝐼 (6.18)
= 𝐼𝑧 (6.14) = 𝑧 (6.16)
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑧𝑑𝑥 (6.12) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝐼
= 𝑦𝑧𝐼
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑉𝑦𝑑𝑥 (6.13) 𝑑𝐼 𝑑2𝐼 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑉𝑦 (6.15) = 𝑦 (6.17)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 (6.19)
 Modeling Long Transmission Line

𝑑2𝑉 𝑑2𝐼
= 𝑦𝑧𝑉 (6.18) = 𝑦𝑧𝐼 (6.19)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Now find the solution of equation (6.18).

𝑑2𝑉 𝑦𝑧 𝑥
− 𝑦𝑧𝑉 = 0 So, 𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑦𝑧𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0 𝑉 = 𝐴1 𝑒 + 𝐴2 𝑒 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 (6.20)
2
ሺ𝑚 − 𝑦𝑧൯𝑒 𝑚𝑥 =0
Let, 𝑉 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 Which is the solution of (6.18),
𝑚2 − 𝑦𝑧 = 0

Now putting V in equation (6.14), we get

𝑑 𝑦𝑧 𝑥
𝐴 𝑒 + 𝐴2 𝑒 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1

𝑦𝑧 𝑥
𝑦𝑧 𝐴1 𝑒 − 𝑦𝑧 𝐴2 𝑒 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑥
= 𝐼𝑧

𝑦ൗ 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝑦ൗ − 𝑦𝑧 𝑥
𝐼= 𝑧 𝐴1 𝑒 − 𝑧 𝐴2 𝑒 (6.22)
 Modeling Long Transmission Line

𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝑦ൗ 𝑦ൗ
𝑉 = 𝐴1 𝑒 + 𝐴2 𝑒 − 𝑦𝑧 𝑥 (6.20) 𝐼= 𝑧 𝐴1 𝑒
𝑦𝑧 𝑥
− 𝑧 𝐴2 𝑒
− 𝑦𝑧 𝑥

(6.22)

When, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 Now solving

Let, 𝑍𝐶 = 𝑧Τ , then
𝑦
So, from (6.20) and (6.22) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶
𝐴1 =
1 2
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐴2
𝑍𝐶 1
𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶
𝑦ൗ 𝑦ൗ 𝐴2 =
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑧 𝐴1 − 𝑧 𝐴2 2

Now, considering 𝛾 = 𝑦𝑧, and putting 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 in (6.20) and (6.22), we get,

𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛾𝑥 1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛾𝑥 1 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛾𝑥
𝑉= 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝐼= 𝑒 − ቆ )𝑒
2 2 𝑍𝐶 2 𝑍𝐶 2
(6.23) 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 − 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥
𝐼= 𝑒 −൭ )𝑒
2 2
(6.24)
Where 𝑍𝐶 is the characteristics impedance of the line, 𝛾 is propagation constant. Equation
(6.23) and (6.24) give rms values of V and I and their phase angles at any point of x.
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line

𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 − 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥

𝑉= 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝐼= 𝑒 −൭ )𝑒
2 2 2 2
(6.23) (6.24)
We have
𝑍𝐶 = 𝑧ൗ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 𝑦𝑧 Both are complex quantities.

Let 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽, 𝛼 is attenuation constant, and 𝛽 is phase constant.

𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝑉= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 (6.26)
2 2
𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 − 𝐼𝑅 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝐼= 𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑒 (6.27)
2 2
First term of equation (6.26)
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝑒 𝑒
2
❖ As 𝑥 ↑, 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 ↑, and advances in phase.
❖ Conversely, we can say, if we progress from sending end to receiving 𝑥 ↓, so 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 ↓, and
retards in phase.
❖ This is the characteristics of a traveling wave, and this first term is called incident voltage.
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝑉= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 (6.26)
2 2

Second term of equation (6.26) 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥

𝑒 𝑒
2
❖ As 𝑥 ↑, 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 ↓, and retards in phase.
❖ Conversely, we can say, if we progress from sending end to receiving 𝑥 ↓, so 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 ↑,
and advances in phase.
❖ This is the characteristic of a traveling wave, and this first term is called reflected
voltage.
❖ At any point along the line the voltage is the sum of the components incident and
reflected voltages at that point.

❖ Same analysis for the

current equation.
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line
If the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance 𝑍𝐶 , i.e.,

Then 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥
So, equation 𝑉= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒
2 2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 0 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
Similarly, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 0 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
❖ As no reflection, a line terminated in its 𝑍𝐶 is called flat line or infinite line.
❖ Usually, power lines are not terminated at 𝑍𝐶 , but communication lines are frequently so
terminated to eliminate the reflected wave.
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line

Typical value of 𝑍𝐶
𝑍𝐶 = 400 Ω for a single circuit overhead line
𝑍𝐶 = 200 Ω for a two circuits overhead line in parallel.
∠𝑍𝐶 = 0 𝑡𝑜 − 150
𝑍𝐶 is called surge impedance in case of lossless line.

Lossless line means series resistance and shunt conductance are zero.

❖ So, 𝑍𝐶 = 𝐿Τ
𝐶 Ω, L in Henry, C in Farad. Now 𝑍𝐶 is real value only.

❖ As 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝐶ൗ
𝑙

❖ Since 𝛼 = 0 for lossless line.

❖ When dealing with high frequencies or with surges due to lightning, losses are
often neglected, and surge impedance becomes important.
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL):

SIL of a line is the power delivered by a line to a purely resistive load equal to its surge
impedance.
𝑉𝐿
When so loaded, the line supplies a current of 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐴
3 𝐿ൗ𝐶

𝑉𝐿 is line to line voltage at the load.

Since the load is pure resistance,

𝑉𝐿
𝑆𝐼𝐿 = 3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 = 3 𝑉𝐿 × 𝑊
3 𝐿ൗ
𝐶
2
𝑉𝐿
If 𝑉𝐿 in kV, 𝑆𝐼𝐿 = 𝑀𝑊
𝐿ൗ
𝐶
 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line
2𝜋
Wavelength: 𝛽=
𝜆

Velocity of wave,
2𝜋𝑓
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 =
𝛽
For lossless line of length l meter,
𝛽 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿𝐶 Τ𝑙
So, 𝑙
𝜆= 𝑚
𝑓 𝐿𝐶
𝑙 𝑚
Velocity, 𝑣 =
𝐿𝐶 𝑠

When values of L and C for lossless overhead lines are substituted in these equations.

𝜆 = 3000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 60 𝐻𝑧.

And velocity nearly light speed 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 .

 Interpretation of Equation of Long Transmission Line

No load condition: 𝐼𝑅 = 0

𝑉𝑅 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 −𝛼𝑥 −𝑗𝛽𝑥

Then 𝑉= 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒
2 2

Now at receiving end, i.e., x = 0, the incident and reflected voltages are equal in
magnitude and in phase.
𝑉𝑅 𝛼𝑥 𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝑉𝑅
Again, 𝐼= 𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥
2𝑍𝐶 2𝑍𝐶

❖ Now at receiving end, i.e., x = 0, the incident and reflected currents are equal in
magnitude and are at 1800 out of phase.

❖ Thus, the incident and reflected currents cancel each other at the receiving end of
an open line but not at any other point unless the line is entirely lossless that
attenuation constant is zero.
 Long Transmission Line Modeling
Hyperbolic form of the equation of long transmission line:

❑ The incident and reflected waves of voltage are seldom found when calculating the
voltage of a power line.

❑ The reason for discussing the voltage and the current of a line in terms of the
incident and reflected components is that such an analysis is helpful in obtaining a
better understanding of some of the phenomena of transmission lines.

❑ A more convenient form of the equations for computing current and voltage of a
power line is found by introducing hyperbolic functions.

❑ Hyperbolic functions are defined in exponential form

𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃
sinh 𝜃 =
2
𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
cosh 𝜃 =
2
 Long Transmission Line Modeling
Hyperbolic form of the equation of long transmission line:

𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 −𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑍𝐶 − 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥

𝑉= 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝐼= 𝑒 −൭ )𝑒
2 2 2 2
(6.23) (6.24)
Rearrange equation (6.23) and (6.24)

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑐
(6.23) 𝑉= 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
2 2
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑥) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑥) (6.33)

𝐼𝑅 𝑉
(6.24) 𝐼= 2
𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 + 2𝑍𝑅 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
𝑐
𝑉𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑥) + sinhሺ𝛾𝑥) (6.34)
𝑍𝑐

Let 𝑥 = 𝑙 , so we will get the sending end voltage and current.

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.35)

𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.36)
𝑍𝑐
 Transmission Line Modeling
Hyperbolic form of the equation of long transmission line:

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.35) 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 (6.8)

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐷𝐼𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉𝑅 (6.9)
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.36)
𝑍𝑐

If we compare (6.35) and (6.36) with (6.8) to (6.9), we can say,

1
A = cosh 𝛾𝑙 = 𝐷, 𝐵 = 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙), and 𝐶 = 𝑍 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙), (6.37)
𝑐

Solving by equation (6.35) and (6.36), we can get,

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑆 cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 𝐼𝑆 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.38)

𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑆 cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑍𝑆 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.39)
𝑐

Since 𝛾𝑙 is complex, the hyperbolic functions are also complex.

 Long Transmission Line Modeling
Equivalent circuit of a long transmission line:
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑐 sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.35) 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 coshሺ𝛾𝑙) + 𝑍𝑐
sinhሺ𝛾𝑙) (6.36)

Let a π-circuit is the equivalent circuit of a long transmission line.

So, we can write

𝑌 ′ 𝑍′
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ1 + 2 ) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍 ′ (6.44)

The coefficient must be identical to long

transmission line. So,

𝑧 sinh 𝛾𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = sinh 𝛾𝑙 = 𝑧𝑙 =𝑍 (6.46)
𝑦 𝑦𝑧 × 𝑙 𝛾𝑙

Again,
𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙
1+ = cosh 𝛾𝑙
2

𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙 𝑌′ cosh 𝛾𝑙 −1
= cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1 = (6.49)
2 2 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙
 Transmission Line Modeling
Equivalent circuit of a long transmission line:

𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙

sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍′ = 𝑍
𝛾𝑙

𝑌′ cosh 𝛾𝑙 −1
=
2 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙
Ferranti Effect

❑ A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current.

❑ If such a line is open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the
voltage at receiving end may become larger than the voltage at the sending
end.

❑ This phenomena is known as Ferranti Effect and is due to the voltage drop
across the line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the
sending end voltage.

❑ Therefore, both capacitance and inductance are responsible to produce this

phenomena.
 Ferranti Effect

Let consider the equivalent π-model of a transmission line.

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅

Therefore,
𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ1 + ) + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍 (33)
2

For open circuit line, 𝐼𝑅 = 0

Therefore, 𝑌𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ1 + )
2
ሺ𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑙)ሺ𝑟+𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝑙)
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ 2
) (34)
 Ferranti Effect
Neglecting resistance of the transmission line
ሺ−𝜔2 𝐿𝐶)𝑙 2 )
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ 2
) (35)

1
The quantity is constant in all through the line and is equal to the
𝐿𝐶
velocity of the propagation of the electromagnetic waves (=3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
1
𝐿𝐶 = 9×1018 (36)
ሺ−𝜔2 𝑙2 )
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ሺ18×1018)
𝜔2 𝑙 2
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 [1 − ] (37)
18×1018

𝜔2 𝑙 2
Now as 1 − 18×1018 < 1, 𝑉𝑆 < 𝑉𝑅

That is, the receiving end voltage is greater than sending end voltage and this effect
is called as Ferranti effect. It is valid for open circuit condition of long transmission
line.
Wish You
a clean
route
EEE 3201