M4

Simple Stresses

INTRODUCTION
and Strains 4
strength are
The mainareas of interest in the study of material
and moments, and
() how materials react to different loads
different machine and
(i) how forces act and their effects on
structural components like beams, columns, trusses, etc.
design
The knowledge so acquired offers a logical approach to all
and
challenges, aiding engineers in developing all kinds of machinery
structures and also providing safety measures for the secure operation
of the elements.
CLASSIFICATIONOF MATERILAS
Materials are commonly classified as
() Rigid body: The body does not produce any displacement of its
particles relative to each other on the application of load.
(ii) Elastic materials: The materials which undergo deformation when
subjected to load, but their deformation vanishes on removal of
load.
(iii) Plastic material: The materials undergo deformation when
subjected to load, but deformation does not disappear at all after
removal of load.

(iv) Ductile material: Under loading, ductile materials show large

deformation before fracture. It can be drawn into thin wires.
Eg. Mild steel, aluminium and copper.
(v) Brittle material: A material is brittle if, when subjected to loading.
it fractures with little deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively
little energy prior tofracture, even those of high strength. Cast iron
andglass are brittle materials.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The important properties of engineering materials are:
1. Elasticity: A property which enables the material to regain its
original shape after deformation when the external forces are
removed #.

72
 Simple Stresses and Strains
2. Plasticity: A property which enables the material to retain
permanentlythe deformation produced under
load.
Ductility: Aproperty which enables the material to be drawn into
wires with the application of a tensile force.
A Malleability: A property which permits the
materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets,.
s Hardness: A property which represents the
resistance of a material
to wear, Scratching, penetrationand machining etc. #2.
6 Brittleness: A property due to which the
material breaks with little
permanent distortion.
7. Toughness: A property which enables the material to
resist fracture
due to high impact loads #2.
8. Stiffness: Ability of a material to resist
deformation under stress.
9. Resilience: Ability of material to absorb
energy.
10.Fatigue: Behaviour of materials under cyclic
loading, i.e., alternating
tensile and compressive forces.
11. Creep: Under prolonged loading usually at high
temperature, the
material is likely to fail at stresses much lower than the
maximum
stresses that the material can normally withstand.
STRESS, o
Consider a metallic bar with a constant cross-sectional area that is
initially straight and is being loaded at both ends by two
loads or forces. These external forces are collinear, act
opposing
through the
centroid of each cross-section, and line up with the bar's
longitudinal
axis. The elongation depends upon the magnitude of the load applied,
material of the bar and its cross-sectional area. The bar elongates by a
tensile force and shortens its length by a compressive force.

Ihe resistance to the elongation is developed in the bar due to the

Cohesive force between the molecules of the material. The force of
resistance increases as the applied load is increased. If the external
Toad P and the resistance R are equal, the bar will stay in equlibrium.
The reesistance Rper unit area to deformation is referred to as stress or
Wensity of stress, In other words, "Stress 0s the internal resistance
offered by the body due to the applied force."

73
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R
Stress, o =
A
(: R= P) within certain limit
in N/mm?, N/m2
The dimension of stress is FL and is typically given
Pascal.
1 Pascal (Pa) =1 N/m
It is usual practise to express stress in terms of kilo Pascal(Pa), Mega
is low.
Pascal (MPa), or Giga Pascal (GPa), since the quantity 1 Pascal
forces acting on
Load and Stress: The term "load" refers to the external
external forces
any given piece of material. It is the total impact of all
acting on that body. Stress is the body's ability to resist deformation
due to the load. The load is applied on the body while stress is
generatedin the material of the body.
Stress and Pressure: Despite having the same units (N/m), stress and
pressure differ in the following ways:
Stress is experienced in solids. Its quantity is determined by the
direction of application of load in relation to the plane that passes
through the point we consider. Depending on which planes pass
through the point we consider, its magnitude varies.
The force applied per unit area due to the impact of fluid
molecules on a container's walls or a person's body submerged in
a fluid is known as pressure. It is a property of fluids, ie. liquids
and gases. The value of pressure is constant throughout a fluid.
TENSION, COMPRESSION AND SHEAR
Tensile force

When two equal and opposite forces are applied to a structural or

machine member, it is said to be in tension because the member tends
to elongate or become longer. The stress that is created in this way S
known as tensile stress,and it is given as
P
A (A- croSS-sectional area)

74
 Simple Stresses and Strains
For example, in the construction of a suspension bridge, tensile forces
are applied to the main cables that Support the bridge deck. In the
production of metal wires, the raw material is subjected to
tensile
forces to elongate and thin it into the desired wire diameter.
Compressive force

The member is considered to be in compression if it

experiences two
ogualand opposite pushes and tends to shorten or decrease its length.
Thestress created in this way is known as compressive stress, and it is
given as
Oc (A - crOSS-sectional area)
A
For example, when designing aconcrete column, it must be able to
withstand compressive forces to support the weight of the structure
above it. In metal forming operations like forging and stamping,
compressive forces are applied to reshape and deform metal
workpieces into the desired shapes.
In shear loading, the
Rivet
applied force is Shear force
perpendicular to the
axis of the material or
structure, resulting in
experiencing shearing or sliding action. This differs from tensile or
compressive loading, where the forces are applied along the axis.
Shear loads are encountered in fasteners, such as bolts or rivets, and
joints where two parts are connected. The shear load acts on the joint
attempting to separate the connected parts by sliding or shearing them
apart. The stress created in this way is known as shear stress, and it is
given as
P
(A- shear area)
A

STRAIN, 8
When compressive or tensile force is applied on a body, itsdimensions
force.
WIll change accordingly along the direction of the applied
Longitudinal strain or simply strain is the term used to describe this
deformation (change in length) per unit original length.
Change in length
Strain =
Original length
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Since the strain is normaly measured in millimetres per millimetres or

metres per metres, it is dimensionless. If the bar elongates, it is
considered positive: if it is shortening, it is considered negative.
ELASTIC LIMIT, HOOKE'S LAW AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E
When an external load is removed from amember under loading, the
force of resistance disappears and the body regains its original
position. However, this circumstance only arises if the external loading
stays within alimit. The limit of this load which the entire deformation
vanishes on removal of load is known as elastic limit. When the loading
continues the stress crosses the elastic limit there will be apermanent
deformation and the material become plastic stage. According to
Hooke's law, stress andstrain are directly proportional when a material
is loaded within its elastic limit.

Mathematically, Stress x strain;

or G=Ee

E
where the proportional constant E is called Young's modulus or
modulus of elasticity.
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the Young's modulus has the
same units as the stress (N/m", Pa, kPa, MPa). The Young's modulus is a
property of the material, the amount of force applied, the shape of the
body, and the type of loading has no influence on its value. The
Young's modulus of elasticity for common engineering materials are:
Material E, GPa
Steel 200
Cast iron 110
Aluminium 69
Copper 117
Brass 120
Bronze 115
P Sl
We know that, o= Ee and also o =
A' e T we get
P
A
Pl
’ Change in length, Sl =
AE

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 Simple Stresses and Strains
14 mm
4.1. Asteel specimen of mm diameter and length 200 mm was
alongate 0.2 mm whenit is subjected to a tensile load of 40 KNfound
Find
Young's modulus of the steel
A22R21
Solution
Given Data
Let us sketch the d=14 mm
situation and mark P= 40 kN
the given data on
the figure.
E=?
P
=200 mm a-02
Stress, o=
A
T
Cross section area, A=-d'=-X 142 = 153.9 mm²
4 4
40x103
=259.8 N/mm²
153.9
0.2
Strain, E = =0.001
200
259.8
Modulus of elasticity,E = =2.598 x 105 N/mm²
0.001
4.2. A circularsteel rod of 2 cm diameter and 150cmlong is subjected
to an axial pullof20KN.IEthemodulus elasticity ofthematerialofthe
rodis2 x 10 N/mm determine
Stress () Strain i) Elongationoftherod A23R21
Solution
Given Data
Let us sketch the situation and mark the givendata on the figure.
d=20 mm d=2 cm
l=1500 mm P= 20 kN
E=2x 105 N/mm?
o, [, 8l =?
P =150 cm S
() Stress, o =
A
Cross section area, A
=d²=x20 = 314.16 mm²
4 4
20x103
63.66 N/mm?
314.16

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b 63.66
(ii) Strain, [= =0.000318
E 2X105
(0) Elongation, Sl= l= 0,000318 x 1500 = 0.4775 mm

4.3. A 1.5 m long steal bar of width 50 mm and thickness 20 mm is

Subjected to an axial tensile force of 120 kN. If the elongation in the
Tength of the bar is 0.9 mm, calculate the intensity of stress, strain and
modulusofelasticity ofthe material ofthe bar. SimilarA22R21
Solution
Given Data
Let us sketch the situation and mark the given data on the figure.
W=50 mm
P= 120 kN
t= 20 mm
o, [, E=? t S | =0.9 mm
P
1.5 m
Stress, g =
A
Cross section area, A=WXt
= 50 × 20 = 1000 mm?
120x103
= 120N/mm?
1000
0.9
Strain, [ = =

1.5x103
=0.0006
120
Modulus of elasticity, E = 0.0006
=2x 105 N/mm?
4.4.Acastiron hollow circular cylinder of outside diameterr75 mmand
inside diameter of60 mm of length 600 mm is subjected to axial
Compressiveload of 50 kN. Neglecting the possibility of buckling of the
Cylinder, determine the direct stress and reduction in length of the
cylinder under thisload. he modulusof elasticity of cast iron is 100
GPa.
Solution
Given Data
Letus sketch the situation and mark the given data on the
figure.
d=60 mm
E=100 GPa D=75 mm
= 100x109 P=50 kN
N/m?
o, Sl =?
-|= 600 mm

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 Simple Stresses and Strains
P
Stress, O=
A
=
Cross Section area, A 4 (D² d')
4
(75 60) =1589.62 mm?
50x103
1589.62
=31.45 N/mm?
Pl
Change in length, Sl= AE
E=100x10 N/m = 100x10/105 N/mm²
= 1x10 N/mm?
50x10x600
Sl = =0.1887 mm
1589.62x1%105
A5. Asteel wire 2 mlong and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0.75
mm due to weight suspended trom the wire. f the same weight is
Suspended from thebrass wire,2.5 m Jongand 2 mmindiameter itis
elongatedby 465mm Determine themodulus of elasticityof brass if
that of steel is 2 x10 Nmm
Solution
Given data
lg =2 m L, =2.5 m
d, =3mm d, =2 mm
Sl, =0.75 mm SL, = 4.65 mm
E, = 2x105 N/mm? E, =?
For the steel wire,
Pls
l, =
AçEs
SLA^E, 0.75xx32x2x105
=530.1N
2x103
For the brass wire,
Pl
A;Eb
Pls 530.1x2.5x1o3
-=0.907105 N/mm²
Abôly x22x4.65

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m in diameter for the first
4.6. Acircular barof length 450mm is 10 mm In
length. If the
200 mm length and 20 mm in diameter for the remaining
the
bar is subjected to an axial compressive load of 10 KN, determine
material
reductionin length of the bar. Take modulus of elasticity of the
of thebar as E= 2x 105N/mm
Solution
Given Data
d, = 20 mm
d = 10 mm
P=10 kN

-,= 200 mm--=250mm

A, =d,=x10 =78.5 mm?
4 4

A, =d,2 =-x 202 =314 mm²

4 4
Total decrease in length of bar, Sl= 8l, + ol,
P1l1 Pzl2
AjE1 AzEz

-()
E \A1 Az/
(: P,=P, and E=E)
10×103 (200
0.1672 mm
2x105 \78.5
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM #2
Stress-strain diagram is a graphical representation of stress versus
strain under loading. A mild steel bar is taken as aspecimen to study
the stress-strain relationship under a tensile test. Stress is determined
by dividing the applied load by the original cross-sectional area of the
specimen. Strain is calculated by dividing the extension of a given
length,i.e. gauge length by the initial length.
P
Stress, o =
A
and Strain, [ =
where l- gauge length
A initial cross-sectional area.

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 Simple Stresses and Strains
an the tensile load S applied to a
ductile material it elongates
gradually, the important points on the
diagram are as follows:
Stress D

E
A- elastic limit
B
B- yield point
C- lower yield point
D- ultimate strength
E- breaking strength

Strain
OA - material is elastic andobeys
AB rapid deformation
Hooke's law
BC - yielding
CD - strain hardening
DE- necking
Elastic or Proportional limit: StresS varies linearly with
material obeys Hook's law. This linearity continues till strainA and the
point and this
point is called proportional limit or limit of
straight line portion of the stresS-strain curveproportionality. O-A is a
and its slope gives the
value of modulus of elasticity. The word elastic
implies that the stress
developed in the material is such that there is no residual or
deformation when the load is removed. Up to this permanent point, the
deformation is reversible or recOverable.
Yield point: Beyond elastic limit, the material shows
considerable strain
even though there is no increase in load or stress. This
strain is not fully
recoverable, ie., there is no tendency of the atoms to return to their
Original positions. The behaviour of the material is inelastic and the
Onset of plastic deformation is called yielding of the material. Yielding
pertains to the region B-Cand there is drop in load at the point C. The
POnt B S called the upper yield point and point C is the lower yield
point.

Ultimate strength or tensile strength: After yielding has taken place,

the material becomes strain hardened and an increase in load is
required to take the material to its maximum stresS at point D. Point D
epresents the maximum stress and is known as ultimate strength or
the tensile
strength of the material.
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strength: In the portion DE, there is falling off the load or

Breaking
place at E. The point Eis
stress from the maximum until fracture takes
and the corresponding
referred to as the fracture or breaking point
stress is called the breaking stress.
material is a measure of the percentage elongation or the
DUctiyY of a
area of the specimen at the
percentage reduction in cross-sectional
the final length, then
time of failure. Ifl is the initial length and ' is

%increase in lengthx 100

ioined to determine the final
Two pieces of the fractured specimen are
area and A' is the
length l. Similarly if A is the initial cross-sectional
minimum cross-sectional area at fracture, then
A A1
inarea
% reduction X1O0
cross-sectional area
Ihere is very little deformation and reduction in
ductile
OCCurs in brittle materials like cast iron, glass or concrete. A
such
material has a large increase in elongation and reduction in area,
as steel or aluminium. The percentage elongation of 5% is usually
considered to classify these two types of material.

POISSON'S RATIO, p
When a member is subjected to tensile force along its axis, the member
elongates. However the breadth and thickness decreases when the
length increases. The strain in the direction of applied load is called
longitudinal or primary strain (E) and the strain in the lateral or
transverse direction is called lateral or secondary strain ([,).
Initial Final

t-Ñt

-b-Sb
For a rectangular bar of length , breadth b and thickness t,
Longitudinal strain,E, = 8l/l
Lateral strain, E =Bb/b and Bt/t.
For acircular bar of length land diameter d,
Lateral strain, E = Sd/d.
Notably, the longitudinal and the lateral strains are of opposite nature.

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 Simple Stresses and Strains
Eor a given material, when the deformation of the bar is within elastic
limit. the lateral strain and longitudinal strain are directly proportional.
This proportional constant is called Poisson's ratio and is
denoted by u

For common engineering materials, the value of Poisson's ratio lies

between 0.25 and 0.33.
m wide, 12
4.7. A steel bar of 50 mm mm thick and 300 mm long is
Cubiectedto an axíal pul of 84 kN. Find the changes inlength,width
and the thickness of the bar. Take E 2x10 Nmmn
and Poisson's
ratio 0.32
A22R21
Solution
Let us sketch the P=84kN
situation and mark
the given data on the
=300 m m 8 l
figure.
W=50 mm
t=12 mm
E=2x 10 N/mm'
l=0.32
6l, Sw, St=?
A= wxt=50 x 12 = 600 mm2
Pl 84x10x300
We knowthat, Sl=: =0.21 mm
AE 600x2x105
SL 0.21
Longitudinal strain, [j = 300
-=7x 10-4
Ed
Poisson'sratio, u =
’Lateral strain, Ed = X E
=0.32 x 7× 10- = 2.24 x10-4
Change in width, öw = Eg XW
=2.24 x 10- ×50 = 11.2 x 10 mm (1.2 um)
Change in thickness, 8t = Ea Xt
= 2.24 X 10-4 × 12 =2.688 x10- mm (2.688 um)
|Compressiontest, a square sectionn metalic bar50 mm x 50
mm Was subjected to an axlal compress0ve load of 500 KN.
Measurements showed that the Increase in thickness was 0.04 mm and
decrease in length
alculate the values
of 0.5 mm over a gauge length of 200 mm.
of Poisson's ratio and modulus of elasticity.
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Solution
Given data
A=50 x 50 = 2500 mm?
P= 500 kN
St =0.04 mm
Sl =0.5 mm
l=200 mm
4, E=?
Sl 0.5
Longitudinal strain, [, = 200
=0.0025
St 0.04
Lateral strain, &d= 50
= 0.0008
Ed 0.0008
Poisson's ratio, = 0.0025
=0.32
500x103
Stress, o = = 200 N/mm?
A 50×50

Modulus of elasticity, E =
200
=0.8 x 105 N/mm² (80 GPa)
0.0025

SHEAR STRESS, SHEAR STRAIN AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, G

Stress and strain induced by a tangential force to the surface of abody
are called shear stress and shear strain respectively.
E F
P A A' B B
A B

Arectangular block is rigidly held and force P is applied on the upper

surface, the bock gets deformed. The rectangle face ABCD changes to
A'BCD. There is a sliding tendency between the top layer where the
force is acting and the lower layer which is fixed. The resistance to the
sliding is provided by the shear stress developed in the material. The
shear stress is directly proportional to the applied force P and inversely
proportional to the area ABFE.

84
 Simple Stresses and Strains
Shear stress,T= tangential force, P
areaof face ABFE
Shear strain is the ratio of shift AA' to
the height AD ()
AA
Shear strain = tan =

IfØ issmall, tan Ø=0

The angular deformation Oin radians is the shear
rise in tangential force, the shear stress
strain. With gradual
increases
will be a proportional change in shear strain. gradually and there
That is
or T = Go: G
The ratio of the shear stress to
the shear strain is called
riaidity and isusually denoted byG #2. Since shear strain modulus of
dimensions, the unit of modulus of rigidly is the same as shear has no
ie. N/ m². stress,
HYDROSTATIC STRESS,VOLUMETRIC STRAIN AND BULK
MODULUS, K
When a body is submerged in a flid gets
pressure at the surfaces of the body. This subjected
to equal external
external pressure is called
hydrostatic stress, O,, and is compressive in nature. Volumetric strain,
E, is the change in volume of the body per unit
volume caused by
hydrostatic stress.
AV
Within elastic limits, the hydrostatic stress and volumetric strain are
directly proportional.
Mathematically, o, aEy
O, = K&, ’
Ine proportionality constant K is known as the bulk modulus or bulk
modulus of elasticity of the material #. Physically, the bulk modulus is a
easure of the resistance to change of volume of the material when
there isapressure acts on it.
Relation between Elastic Constants
E- Young's modulus
a)E3K(1-2u)
b) E2G(1+ u) G-Modulus of rigidity
K Bulk modulus
9KG l-Poisson's ratio
3K+G

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4.9. Determine the Poisson's ratio and bulk modulus of a materia

whose modulus of elasticityis 200 GPa and modulus of rigidity is 80
GPa.
A23R21
Solution
Given data
,K =?
E=200 GPa
G= 80 GPa
From the relation, E = 2G(1+ )
E 200
-1= -1=0.25
2G 2x80
Fromthe relation, E = 3K(1-2u)
200
K= =133.3 GPa
3(1-2u) 3(1-2x0.25)
4.10. A tensile oad of 56 KN wassappliedtoa bar of 30nmm diameter
With 300mm gauge length.Measurementsshowed O12 mmincrease
inlength and the coresponding 0.0036 mm cóntractionindiameter.
Make calculatiosfor the Poisson's ratio and the values of three moduli
elasticconstants),
Solution
Given data
P=56 kN
d=30 mm
l=300mm
Sl = 0.12 mm
Sd = 0.0036 mm
,E, G, K =?
SL 0.12
Longitudinal strain, e,= l 300
=0.0004
Sd 0.0036
Lateral strain, Ea= d 30
-=0.00012
Ed 0.00012
Poisson's ratio, u= 0.0004
=0.3

P 56x103
Stress, o = = =79.26 N/mm?
A x302

86
 Simple Stresses and Strains
Modulus of elasticity, E =
79.26
0.0004
=1.9815 x10° N/mm (198 GPa)
Fromthe relations, E = 2G(1+ ) and E
Modulus of rigidity, G=
E =3K(1-2u)
2(1+)
1.9815x105
-= 0.762x105 N/mm²
2(1+0.3)
Bilk modulus, K =
3(1-2_)
1.9815x105
=1.65 x 105 N/mm?
3(1-2x0.3)
One word questions:
1. Change in shape of an object in
respect to an applied force is
called
2. Unit of strain is
3. Sl unit of stress is
4. The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension of a
body is known as .....#
5. The ratio between lateral strain to linear strain is
6. Up to elastic limit the ratio between stress and strain is
called as
7. The ratio between the hydrostatic stress to volumetric strain is
called
8. The value of Young's modulus of steel in GPa
9. The ability of a material to resist impact load is called
10. The ability of a material to resist against cyclic loads
1. The ability of a materialto be drawn into wires is called "eee.

12. is the mechanical property of amaterial to fracture with very

little deformation. #

Answers:
1. Deformation 2. Unit less 3. N/m? 4. Strain 5. Poisson's ratio
6.
Modulus
10. Fatigue
of elasticity 7. Bulk modulus 8. 200 9. Toughness
1. Ductility 12. Brittleness

87