Necking – this is the region where the cross-sectional area

of the material decreases in a localized spot, forming a

neck, and the capacity of the material to carry load will
decrease. This covers the area from the ultimate tensile
stress to fracture point where the material breaks.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties are material properties that

determine the applications and behavior of materials
which are helpful in identifying them.

1. Ductility – it is the measure of deformation in a material

which it can withstand before fracturing.
2. Brittleness – this is the opposite of ductility. It is the
property of material to fracture just after elastic limit
when stress is applied on it. Examples of brittle materials
are clay, glass and ceramics.
Proportional Limit (𝜎𝑝𝑙) – it is the point on the stress- 3. Malleability – it is the ability of a material to bend or to
strain curve which shows the highest stress at which the be hammered in all the directions without any fracture,
stress and strain are linearly proportional to each other, therefore can be deformed to thin and flat sheets. Most of
where the constant of proportionality is 𝐸, known as the the malleable materials are also ductile. Gold, iron,
modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after aluminum, lead and copper are some examples of
Thomas Young who introduced it. That is, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖. From malleable materials.
this relation, 𝐸 can be defined as the slope of the strain- 4. Toughness – is the ability of a material to absorb energy
strain curve along the elastic region. Stress is no longer before rupturing. Total area under stress strain curve
linearly proportional to strain above this point. represents toughness.
5. Strength – this is the capability of a material to
Elastic Limit (𝜎𝑒𝑙) - it is the maximum stress that can be withstand the load being applied on it without failure.
applied to the body without resulting in permanent Fatigue strength represents the capability of a material to
deformation when the load is removed. When the load is withstand cyclic loading while impact strength is the
removed, the material returns to its original size and capability of a material to withstand a load that is
shape. suddenly applied.
6. Elasticity – it is the ability of a material to produce
Yield point (𝜎𝑌) – located just above the elastic limit, this strain in all directions under the action of applied stress
is the stress at which the material continues to deform without permanent deformation. The body returns to its
without increase in load. At this point the material will original size and shape when unloaded.
have a permanent deformation. 7. Plasticity – the ability of material to change in size and
shape permanently under the action of applied force This
Ultimate Tensile Strength (𝜎𝑢) – this is the highest property of materials is used to mold different materials
stress on the specimen which it can withstand. to desired form.
8. Resilience – this is the ability of a material to absorb
Fracture Stress (𝜎𝑓) – also called breaking strength, it is energy when it is deformed elastically. When the body is
the stress where the material fractures. unloaded, it will release energy. It represents the
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume
The different regions or areas of the stress-strain diagram without creating permanent distortion.
represent the following: 9. Poisson’s Ratio – it is the ratio of liner strain to the
lateral strain.
Elastic region – this is the area in the stress-strain curve 10. Hardness – it is the ability of a material to resist
from initial point to elastic limit. In this region, the scratch, bending, aberration, wear, tear, and indentation.
material will return to its original size and shape when It is also the resistance to penetration of another body.
unloaded. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material.
11. Flexural Strength – this is the maximum stress
Plastic region – it is the area starting from the elastic limit experienced by a body at its moment of fracture. It is also
to the fracture point. In this region, the body does not go known as the modulus of rupture or bends strength.
back to its original size and shape when the load is 12. Fatigue Ratio – also called endurance ratio, this is the
removed; i.e., it shows plastic behavior. ratio of fatigue strength to tensile strength. The material
having high fatigue ratio shows that it will crack down
Yielding region – this is the region where the body during loading.
produces strain with a little or no increase in load. It starts 13. Young’s Modulus or modulus of elasticity – it is the
from the elastic limit to the yield point. ratio of stress applied to the strain under elastic limit
which measures the stiffness of an elastic material.
Strain Hardening – in this region, the body will elongate 14. Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength – it is the
with increasing stress until the stress reaches a maximum measure of maximum stress that a body can withstand
value and the cross-sectional area will decrease while being stretched or pulled away before necking.
uniformly. This is the area from the yield point to the
ultimate tensile stress.
Simple Strain Stiffness, k
The unit deformation of a material is called strain, Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force P acting on an
represented by the equation elastic body to the resulting displacement 𝛿, hence has the
unit of N/mm; i. e.
𝜖 = d / dL 𝑘=𝑃/

where: Shearing Deformation

𝜖 = strain Shearing deformation causes a change in shape from a
d = differential elongation rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown in Fig. The action
dL = differential length may be visualized as equivalent to the infinitesimal
sliding of infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby
For an axially loaded member, it becomes longer when resulting in the total shearing deformation s in the length
the applied load is in tension and shorter when the applied L
load is in compression. This change in length is called the
normal or linear strain. The average value of the strain is
determined from the equation:

𝜖=/L
where:
𝜖 = average strain The average shearing strain is:
 = elongation 𝛾 = 𝛿𝑠 / L
L = length where:
𝛾 = average strain
The use of the formula for average strain are restricted to 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
the following conditions: 𝐿 = length
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section, that is,
prismatic. If Hooke’s law is applied to shear, 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, from which the
2. The material must be homogeneous. shearing deformation will be:
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
𝛿𝑠 = VL / 𝐴𝑠 G
Hooke’s Law where:
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
in simple tension or compression, as shown in the stress- V = shear force
strain diagram, can be expressed by the equation known 𝐿 = length
as Hooke’s Law, named after the famous English scientist 𝐴𝑠 = shearing area
Robert Hooke who first investigated the elastic properties G = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
of materials.
Working stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety
𝜎=𝐸𝜖 In most engineering structures, it is desired that the
structure will not fail, therefore, its design is based on
where: some lower value called allowable stress or design stress,
𝜎 = average stress which is the maximum safe stress that a material can
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity carry. The ratio of the ultimate strength to the allowable
𝜖 = average strain stress is known as the factor of safety; i. e.

 = PL / AE 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

or 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 = 𝜎L / E
This factor of safety includes such factors as the
where: uncertainty of the load, the uncertainty of the material
𝛿 = axial deformation properties, and the inaccuracy of the stress analysis.
P = axial load The allowable stress should be limited to values not
L = length exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
A = cross section proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity allowable stress can also be computed from the equation:

Since both stress and strain are simple, the use of the 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
formula for axial deformation restricted by the following 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section. Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material
2. The material must be homogeneous. under a given loading.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Sample Problems:

A steel control rod is 5.5 ft long and must not stretch more
than 0.04 in. when a 2-kip tensile load is applied to it.
Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the smallest
diameter rod that should be used. Ans. 0.381 in

Two gage marks are placed exactly 10 in. apart on a 12-

in.-diameter aluminum rod with E = 10.1 × 106 psi and an
ultimate strength of 16 ksi. Knowing that the distance
between the gage marks is 10.009 in. after a load is
applied, determine (a) the stress in the rod, (b) the factor
of safety. Ans. 9.09 ksi, 1.76

A bar of metal 25 mm in diameter is tested on a length of

250 mm. In tension, the following results were recorded.
Load (kN) 10.4 31.2
Extension (mm) 0.039 0.089
a. What is the strain due to the 10.4-kN load?
b. What is the strain due to the 31.2-kN load?
c. What is the Young’s Modulus?

An 80-m-long wire of 5-mm diameter is made of a steel

with E = 200 GPa and an ultimate tensile strength of 400
MPa. If a factor of safety of 3.2 is desired, determine
a. the largest allowable tension in the wire,
b. the corresponding elongation of the wire.

An aluminum pipe must not stretch more than 0.05 in.

when it is subjected to a tensile load. Knowing that E =
10.1 × 106 psi and that the maximum allowable normal
stress is 14 ksi, determine
a. the maximum allowable length of the pipe, ans. 3ft
b. the required area of the pipe if the tensile load is 127.5
kips. Ans. 9.107 in^2

A short post constructed from a hollow circular tube of

aluminum supports a compressive load of 26 kips. The
inner and outer diameters of the tube are di = 4.0 in. and
do = 4.5 in., respectively, and its length is 16 in. The
shortening of the post due to the load is measured as 0.012
in. Disregard the weight of the post itself, and assume that
the post does not buckle under the load. Use E = 10600
ksi. a. Determine the compressive stress in the post. Ans.
7.789 ksi b. Determine the strain in the post. Ans. 7.384

An 18-m-long steel wire of 5-mm diameter is to be used

in the manufacture of a prestressed concrete beam. It is
observed that the wire stretches 45 mm when a tensile
force P is applied. Knowing that E = 200 GPa, determine
a. the magnitude of the force P. Ans. 9.82 kN b. the
corresponding normal stress in the wire. Ans. 500 MPa

A steel bar AD has a cross-sectional area of 0.40 in2 and

is loaded by forces P1 = 2700 lb, P2 = 1800 lb, and P3 =
1300 lb. The lengths of the segments of the bar are a = 60
in., b = 24 in., and c = 36 in. a. Assuming that the modulus
of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi, calculate the change in
length of the bar. Ans. 0.0131 in