Module 2

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Ecosystem: functions and services, Nutrient,
phosphorous, carbon, nitrogen, cycles; Effect of
human activities on these cycles. Threats to
biodiversity: conservation strategies, sustainable
solutions.
 Definition
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variation
of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem,
biome or for the entire Earth..
Biodiversity refers to variety and variability among
all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem
complexes in which they occur.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of various life forms that
are found on this Earth.
 Biodiversity
• India is rich in biodiversity because of varied
eco-climatic condition, unique geographical
features.
• With only 2.4% of world’s land area, India
accounts for 7-8% of the species of the world.
• In terms of species richness India ranks 7th in
mammal, 9th in birds, 5th in reptiles.
Type of Biodiversity
 Genetic Biodiversity
• Genetic Biodiversity means the variation within the same species.
• This refers to a variation in genes within a particular species .
❑ Difference in body shape, size, height and color of skin is because of
Genetic variations in Human beings.
❑ Large variety of wheat, rice, pulses, cow, horse.
• Hybrid varieties of crops and animals are formed by incorporating several
useful genes from several species. These hybrid species have more
production, longer life and better resistance to disease.
• Lack of biodiversity at this level means lack of ability of species to survive in
adverse condition.
Genetic Biodiversity
Genetic Biodiversity
 Species Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity means the number of different kinds
organisms found at a particular location.
• It varies place to place and even seasonally at the same place.
• This refers to a variation at species level

• Species Biodiversity means the number of species in an

ecosystem.
For e.g.- Number of various kinds of plants, trees, birds, insects, animals,
fishes etc. in a particular location / in an ecosystem.
 Species diversity
• number of species in a given area.
– An island with 2 bird species and 1 lizard species Vs. an island with
3 bird species.
– An island with 2 bird species and 1 lizard species Vs. an island with
3 bird species and 1 lizard species .

Vs.
 Ecosystem Biodiversity
• Different Ecosystem (aquatic & terrestrial) are formed due to different
geological and environmental conditions prevailing on earth.
• These ecosystems are habitat to different types of plants & animals.
• Ecosystem Biodiversity is the distinctive group of species that live together
in the same area and interact with the physical environment in unique ways.
• Ecosystem Biodiversity means number of different ecosystems in a region. If
the region has only one kind of ecosystem then it reflects lack of
biodiversity.
 Ecosystem diversity
• Variety of ecosystems
within an area.
– Wisconsin has about 9
different ecosystems, other
Coniferous Forest states only have about 3,
meeting a meadow
some >14, etc.
– Very hard to measure due
to overlapping boundary
areas also called ecotones.
Ocean meeting
a beach
 Importance of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is of both aesthetic as well as of practical importance.
• Rich biodiversity is an indicator of the health of a particular habitat and its
potential to sustain life.
• Food : 80,000 edible plant species
• Maintains soil quality: healthy bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms
help cycle nutrients.
• Maintains air quality: plants purify the air and filter harmful particles out of the
air
• Maintains water quality: variety of vegetation reduces erosion and purifies water
by removing (using or absorbing) nutrients and pollution
• Pest control: most crop pests can be controlled by other organisms for a longer
period of time – helpful because many pests become resistant to synthetic pesticides
• Pollination and crop production: More than 1/3 of world’s crops rely on
healthy pollinators
• (Potential) Medicines: many current and possible future medications found in
areas with high biodiversity
– 75% of world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines.
Penicillin, from a fungus called penicillium. Tetracyclin from a bacterium.
Quinine is obtained from bark cinchona tree. Neem, Tulsi, Aloe Vera
 Importance of Biodiversity
• Genetic resource: Most of the hybrid varieties of crops and animals have
been developed by using genes from different species. For e.g.- Pony, Sheep
Dolly
• Diverse species of plant, animals & micro organisms provide invaluable and
indispensable ecological services. For e.g.- Maintaining the chemical
composition of atmosphere, maintaining nutrient in soil and water, recycling
of solid waste etc.
• Fuel: Forests used for Fuel Wood. Fossil fuels Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are
also products of fossilized biodiversity.
• Industries: Paper and Pulp, Plywood, Textile , Leather and Pearl Industry
• Holy worship: Plants like Tulsi, Peepal, Mango, Lotus etc are considered holy and
their leaves, fruits and flowers are used in worship.
• Prevention: of Soil Erosion, floods, soil infertility, Pollutant and reduction of
the threat of Global Warming.

Ethical issues like “ all life must be preserved ”.

Based on the concept of “ Live and Let Live ”.
 Hotspots of Biodiversity
• A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of
biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.

• These are the areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity, have high level of
endemism and are constant threat of species extinction and habitat
destruction.

• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspots on Norman Myers 2000 edition of the

hotspot map, a region must meet two criteria-

1) Must contain more than 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as

endemics.

2) It has lost at least 70% of its original vegetation.

• Around the world 34 areas qualify under this definition.

• Hotspots of India: Eastern Himalayas and Western ghats

 MEGA DIVERSITY NATION
India is one of the mega diversity countries in the world.
→ Australia
→ Brazil
→ China
→ Columbia
→ Ecuador
→ The United States
→ India
→ Indonesia
→ Madagascar
→ Mexico
→ Peru
→ The democratic Republic of Congo
India - A Country of Mega Biodiversity

India has immense biological diversity which can be

attributed to the variety of physiographic & climatic
situations, resulting in a diversity of ecological habitats
like forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal, marine and
desert ecological systems. These ecological systems
harbour a wide variety of plants and animals.
India is one of the “Hotspots countries”. Two hotspots that
extend to India are: The Western Ghats/Sri Lanka and the
Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas),
which have been included amongst the top eight most
important hotspots.
 India- Mega biodiversity

• The ministry of environment and forests, Govt. of

India records ~45000 species of plants and
~90000 species of animals i.e., 7% and 6.5% of
the global flora and fauna.
• About 62% of amphibians and 50% lizards are
endemic to India.
• Western Ghats are the site of maximum
endemism.
India has 2.4 % of
world’s total area .

1% of the forest area

7.31% of Earth’s
biodiversity.

India has 16.1% of

world human
population and 15.1%
of cattle population
Estimated Number of Animal Species
Taxonomic World India Percentage
Group
Chordata 48,451 4,952 10.22
Protochordata 2,106 119 11.80
Pisces 21,723 2546 12.00
Amphibia 5,150 219 17.80
Reptilia 5,817 456 08.46
Aves 9,026 1,166 08.53
Mammalia 4,629 397 07.00
Total 11,96,903 86,874 07.25
(Animalia)
Protista 31,250 2,577 09.24
Total 12,28,15 89,457 07.29
3
About 18 percent
of the country’s
recorded plants and
animals are endemic
to the country.
India has 26 recognized
endemic centres that are
home to nearly one third
of all the identified
flowering plants.
Endemic Species of
Plants
Group No. of species
Pteridophyta 200
Angiosperms 4950
 Endemic Species of
Animals
Group No. of species
Mollusca 878
Land 89
Freshwater 110
Insects 16,214
Amphibia 214
Reptilia 69
Aves 69
Mammalla 38
Amongst fauna, exceptional
diversity is found in amphibians
(62% species are endemic),
butterflies, moths, and birds.
 IUCN categories
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Threatened Species:

The term is used in conservation context for species which

are in one of the categories –

• Endemic or Precinctive
• Endangered
• Rare species
• extinct
• Vulnerable
 Extinct
• A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at
a stretch
• Extinction is the termination of an organism. Its is estimated that
over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct.
• Extinction of a animal or plant species occurs when there are no more
individual of that specie alive anywhere in the world.
• Various factors which are responsible for extinction :
– Genetic and Habitat degradation
– Predation, Competition, disease and climate change
– Human activities
Extinct species in India
 Endemic or Precinctive species
• Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only
in one geographical region. Species can be endemic to
a particular continent, some part of continent or
to an island.
• Endemism is the ecological state of a species being
unique to a defined geographical location
• Species that are unique to a area are not endemic if
they are found elsewhere.
• Endemic specie are more vulnerable to extinct because
they depend on a certain type of habitat or food
source, can not adjust to alteration whether natural or
human caused.
Endemic species in India
 Endangered species
• A species is said to be endangered when its number
has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitats, have been drastically reduced
• If such a species is not protected and conserved, it
is in immediate danger of extinction.
• Species become endangered because of two
reasons
– Loss of habitat and Loss of genetic variation
Endangered species in India
 Vulnerable
• A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its
population is facing a continuous decline due to
over exploitation or habitat destruction. Such a
species is till abundant, but under a serious threat
of becoming endangered if casual factors are not
checked.
• Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at
present, but are at a risk are categorized as rare
species. These species are usually endemic.
 Rare species
• A group of organisms (plants / animals) that
are uncommon.
• Rare species are the species with small
population and are generally considered as
threatened species because small population
size is more likely to face ecological disaster.
• Rare species are different from endangered
species or threatened species. Designation of
rare species are made by official bodies like
government, state or province.
 Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction, the elimination of species is a normal
process in nature. Species die out and are replaced by
other as part of evolutionary process.
• The rate of extinction in a undisturbed ecosystem
remain unchanged but due to human activities the
rate of elimination of species has increased.
• E. O. Wilson a noted ecologist says 10,000 species per
year or 27 per day becomes extinct
 Human impact on loss of Biodiversity
• The growth of human populations, consumption levels, and
mobility is the root of most of the serious threats to
biodiversity today.
• It is rare that humans intend to make a species go extinct or
to threaten biodiversity in some other way. Usually, those
impacts are the unfortunate by-products of people trying
to provide a decent living for themselves.
• In the last 30 years or so, efforts to protect and preserve
biodiversity have expanded exponentially.
• Its simply foolish to conclude that humans are short-
sighted or greedy, and instead consider the larger systems
that lead toward biodiversity loss.
 loss of biodiversity
“HIPPO”
• Habitat Loss
• Invasive Species
• Poaching
• Pollution
• Over population
 Habitat Loss
• This occurs when a particular area is converted
from usable to unusable habitat.
• Industrial activities, agriculture, aquaculture,
mining, deforestation, and water extraction are all
central causes of habitat loss.
• Habitat fragmentation, the loss of large units of
habitat, is also a serious threat to biodiversity.
 Invasive Species
• When an animal, plant, or microbe moves into
a new area, it can affect the resident species in
several different ways.
• New species can parasitize or predate upon
residents, hybridize with them, compete with
them for food, bring unfamiliar diseases,
modify habitats, or disrupt important
interactions.

Brown tree snake in Guam: Native to Australia, the snake was

accidentally transported to Guam in ship cargo following World
War II. Because Guam had basically no predators to keep the
snake population in check, it rapidly multiplied and caused the
extinction of most of the resident bird species.
 Poaching
• Illegal hunting (killing)
OR
• Illegally removing a species from
its habitat
 Poached Species
• Big Cats – Fur
• Elephants – Ivory
• Rhinoceros – Horns
• Orangutans – Pets
• Macaws – Pets
 Pollution
Water, Air and Ground Pollution
• Water: Pesticides, Fertilizers,
Pesticide= chemicals used to kill a pest (rodent, insect,
fungus, etc.)
Runoff with rainwater puts it into local water systems.
Disrupts aquatic food chains

Fertilizers: Runoff into lakes

Causes rapid algae growth (algae bloom)
Algae blocks sunlight and….
Plants die (less oxygen)
Decomposers break down dead plants (&
use up oxygen)
No oxygen available to other animals and
they “suffocate”
 Air Pollution
• Air Pollution: Pollutants released into air
usually from burning fossil fuels
Global warming
Ozone depletion
Acid Rain
Carbon Monoxide poisoning

• Ground Pollution: Soil becomes

polluted when air pollutants drift
to the ground or when water
leaves pollutants behind as it
flows through the soil.
Over Population
 Overpopulation

• As more humans are added to our planet,

the demand for natural resources (for
energy, food and shelter) increases and more
land is cleared for development.
 Conservation of Biodiversity
One of the biggest environmental issue is the conservation of
biodiversity.
Objectives of conservation of natural resources are:
❖ Maintain essential ecological processes
❖ Preserve the diversity of species
❖ Ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem

The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on protecting

plant and animal life in protected habitats such as botanical
gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks etc.
 What Actions Can be Taken?
1. Protected areas
2. Species protection and recovery measures
3. Ex situ and in situ conservation of genetic diversity
4. Restoration
5. Consider biodiversity in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries
6. Capture of benefits by local communities
7. Increased coordination
8. Public awareness and education
9. Increased integration of sectorial responses
10. Sustainable intensification of agriculture
11. Addressing unsustainable consumption patterns
12. Slowing global growth of nutrient loading
13. Correction of market failures
14. Integration of biodiversity conservation and development
15. Increased accountability of performance in decisions
16. Scientific data need to be made available to all sectors of society
 Laws Governing Biodiversity Conservation in India
(i) The Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873.
(ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.
(iii) The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
(iv) Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1912.
(v) The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
(vi) Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
(vii) Haily National Park Act.. 1936.
(viii) Bombay Wild, Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951.
(ix) Assam Rhinoceros Protection Act, 1954.
(x) The Cruelty Against Animals Act, 1960.
(xi) The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
(xii) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
(xiii) Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act; 1991.
Conservation of Forests and National Ecosystems Act, 1994.
 Conservation of Biodiversity

Wildlife life conservation in protected habitat can be done

by following approaches:
1) In-situ conservation
2) Ex-situ conservation
 In-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation of species in natural ecosystem
Conserving a species in its own environment by creating
national parks or wildlife sanctuaries.
In-situ or on-site conservation is the conservation of wild
flora and fauna and not to domesticated animal and plants
because conservation is possible by protection of
population in nature.
Protection of population in nature is done by declaring the
area as protected area.
Three types of protected areas-
(i) Wildlife Sanctuaries;
(ii) National Park;
(iii) Biosphere Reserves

• 421 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 75 National Park, 14

Biosphere Reserved in India covering about 4% of
total geographical area.
 Biosphere Reserves
In January 1989, 274 biosphere reserves had been established
in 74 countries out of which 14 proposed sites found place in
India.
 Protected Areas
• Gir Sanctuary: Asiatic Lion
• Western Ghat: Diverse forest
• Bhimasankar: Rich flora
• Nilgiri Hills: Indian Elephant
• Chilika Lake: Coastal Ecosystem
• Sunderban: Mangrove forest
Project Tiger
Project Crocodile
 Other Projects
• Gir Lion Project: The Asiatic lion In 1972 the State
government prepared a scheme for the management of
the Gir Lion Sanctuary with proper guidelines for
conservation.
• Himalayan Musk Deer Project: due to its musk been
used in the preparation of perfumes and medicine.
Secondly the habitat destruction brought about a sharp
decline in their population. A conservation project was
therefore launched at the Kedarnath sanctuary in U.P.
• Project Elephant: Elephant habitat restoration work
was done in Rajaji National Park.
 Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
• Ex-situ or off-site conservation means
conservation of species particularly endangered
species away from their natural habitat under
human supervision.
• Many rare species or species having small
remaining population are protected by this
strategy.

• For e.g.- Zoo, Aquarium, Botanical garden,

Seed Bank, Gene Bank
 Seed Bank Gene Bank

Botanical Garden Zoo

 Aquatic Biodiversity
Aquatic biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and the
ecosystems that make up the freshwater, tidal, and marine
regions of the world and their interactions.

Aquatic biodiversity encompasses freshwater ecosystems,

including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, marine, streams,
groundwater, and wetlands.

It also consists of marine ecosystems, including oceans,

estuaries (river mouth), salt marshes (swamplands), seagrass
beds, coral reefs and mangrove forests.

Aquatic biodiversity includes all unique species, their habitats

and interaction between them. It consists of phytoplankton,
zooplankton, aquatic plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals, and
others.
 Aquatic systems
In most aquatic systems, the key factors determining
the types and numbers of organisms found at various
depths are:
❖ water temperature,
❖ dissolved oxygen content,
❖ availability of food,
❖ availability of light
❖ availability nutrients for photosynthesis
Services
 Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity
• Factors like overexploitation of species, the
introduction of exotic species, urban,
industrial, and agricultural pollution, habitat
loss, alteration through damming (blocking)
and water diversion all contribute to the loss
of aquatic biodiversity in both freshwater and
marine environments.

• CO2, Water Pollution, etc

 Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
An aquatic bio- reserve is a defined space within a water body in
which fishing is banned or other restrictions are placed in an effort
to protect plants, animals, and habitats.
Regulatory measures must be taken on wastewater discharge in
the water body to conserve biological diversity.

Increasing public awareness to conserve aquatic biodiversity

through educational programs, incentive programs, and volunteer
monitoring programs.
Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent
soil erosion and subsequently reduce the problem of slitation in
water body resulting in better survival of aquatic organisms.
Avoid the establishment of industries, chemical plants and
thermal power plants near the water resources as their discharge
affect the ecology of water body resulted in loss of biodiversity.
 Terrestrial Biodiversity
Terrestrial biodiversity means the variety of life forms on the
land surface of the earth.
Terrestrial biodiversity refers to animal, plants and micro-
organisms that live on land and also on land habitat such as
forests, deserts and grassland, Island, taiga and tundra.
High biodiversity is used as an indicator of ecosystem health
and have direct impact on human health.
Climate change will affect terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem
through both gradual and sudden changes in response to the
average climate.

(For e.g. increased temperature, decreased rainfall, changes to

seasonality) and extreme events (increased hot days, fire,
increased frequency and severity of cyclones, heat waves,
intensified wet seasons).
 Threats and conservation to Terrestrial Biodiversity

Main threats Some underlying causes

Spread of the urbanised areas, road network and industrial areas and associated
Degradation, destruction and
problems (noise, pollution); abandon of former agricultural practices that were
fragmentation of natural habitats
favourable to biodiversity

Intensification of agricultural practices (yielding pollution and disturbance) and

Decrease in the capacity of the
disappearance of landscape elements that provide food and shelter that are
agricultural areas to host wildlife
exploitable by wildlife (such as hedges, trees, ponds, etc.)

Excess of heavy metals (industry, roads), manure and pesticides (agriculture) and
Pollution of soils, air and water
other pollutants

International trade and transport (roads, railways, rivers), gardening practices, exotic
Invasions by alien species
trees in forestry, exotic pests released in the wild, climate change, etc.
Arrivals of pathogens that are favoured by the introduction of exotic species, pollution
Epidemics affecting wildlife and the destruction of habitats

Carbon emissions, deforestation and other land use changes due to human activities
Climate change

Dessication of soils and wetlands Excess pumping of underground water tables

Overuse of green open spaces and wild areas, little respect for nature, mountain
Recreation and leisure
biking and motor sports in fragile areas, dogs not on leash