Introduction to Remote Sensing and GIS

January 13, 2016

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Introduction

Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an

object or feature without physically coming in contact with that object or
feature.
These remotely collected data through various sensors may be analyzed
to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation.
In this course we will deal with remote sensing through electromagnetic
energy sensors only.

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Definition

Remote Sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an

object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a
device that is not in contact with the object, area or phenomenon under
investigation.

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Principle of remote Sensing
1 Energy Source or Illumination (A): The first requirement for re-
mote sensing is to have an energy source which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2 Radiation and the Atmosphere (B): As the energy travels from its
source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with
the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a
second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

Figure: Remote Sensing Process

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1 Interaction with the Target (C): Once the energy makes its way to
the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depend-
ing on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
2 Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D): After the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote -
not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic
radiation.

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1 Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E): The energy recorded
by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a
receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an
image (hardcopy and/or digital).
2 Interpretation and Analysis (F): The processed image is interpreted,
visually and/ordigitally or electronically, to extract information about
the target which was illuminated.
3 Application: The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved
when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the
imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some
new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

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Physics of remote sensing

The distribution of the continuum of all radiant energies can be plotted

either as a function of wavelength or of frequency in a chart known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure: Electromagnetic Spectrum

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The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source
to illuminate the target.
This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and behaves
in predictable ways according to the basics of wave theory.
Sun light, Heat, Radio waves, X-ray, microwaves are inherently similar
in nature and can be conveniently grouped under a single classification
called Electromagnetic Radiation.

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Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic (EM) energy includes all energy moving in a harmonic
sinusoidal wave pattern with a velocity equal to that of light.
Electromagnetic energy has both electric and magnetic components
which oscillate perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to
the direction of energy propagation.

Figure: Electromagnetic wave

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Wavelength λ of EM wave is the distance from any point on one wave
to the same position on the next wave (e.g., distance between two
successive peaks).
The λ wavelengths commonly used in remote sensing are very small.
It is normally expressed in micrometers (µm).
Frequency f is the number of waves passing a fixed point per unit time.
It is expressed in Hertz (Hz).The three attributes are related by

c = λf
which implies that wavelength and frequency are inversely related since
c is a constant.
Longer wavelengths have smaller frequency compared to shorter wave-
lengths.

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Radiation from the Earth

All matter at temperature above absolute zero (00 K or −2730 C ) emits

electromagnetic radiations continuously.
The amount of radiation from such objects is a function of the tem-
perature of the object as shown below.

M = σT 4

This is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law. M is the total radiant exitance

from the source (Watts/m2 ), (σ) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.6697 x 10−8 Watts m−2 k −4 ) and T is the absolute temperature of
the emitting material in Kelvin.
This law is applicable for objects that behave as a blackbody.

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Blackbody Radiation

A blackbody is a hypothetical, ideal radiator. It absorbs and re-emits

the entire energy incident upon it.
Total energy emitted by a black body varies with temperature as given
in Eq. 2.
The total energy is distributed over different wavelengths, which is
called the spectral distribution or spectral.
In addition to the total energy, the spectral distribution also varies with
the temperature.

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Energy Interaction with the Atmosphere
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth’s surface it
has to travel through some distance of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming light and
radiation.

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Scattering

Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the

atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to
be redirected from its original path.
How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including
the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases,
and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.
There are three types of scattering which take place.
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Rayleigh Scattering
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to
the wavelength of the radiation.
Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered
much more than longer wavelengths.
The sky appears ”blue” during the day is because of this phenomenon.
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths
(i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other
(longer) visible wavelengths.

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Mie scattering
It occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wave-
length of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are
common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wave-
lengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering.
Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere
where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud
conditions are overcast.
Nonselective scattering
This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of
the radiation.
Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our
eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately
equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).
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Absorption

This phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy

at various wavelengths.
Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three mainatmo-
spheric constituents which absorb radiation.
Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (ultraviolet) radiation from the sun.
Carbon dioxide referred to as a greenhouse gas which tends to absorb
radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of the spectrum.
Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming long
wave infrared and short wave microwave radiation (between 22m and
1m).
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Because these gases absorb electromagnetic energy in very specific re-
gions of the spectrum, they influence where (in the spectrum) we can
”look” for remote sensing purposes.
Those areas of the spectrum which are not severely influenced by at-
mospheric absorption and thus, are useful to remote sensors are called
atmospheric windows.

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Radiation - Target Interaction

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach

and interact with the Earth’s surface.
There are three forms of interaction that can take place when energy
strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are absorption (A); transmission (T); and reflection (R).
The total incident energy will interact with the surface in one or more
of these three ways.
The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy
and the material and condition of the feature.

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Absorption (A) occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the
target.
Transmission (T) occurs when radiation passes through a target.
Reflection (R) occurs when radiation ”bounces” off the target and is
redirected.

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When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection where
all (or almost all) of the energy is reflected to a single direction.
Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is
reflected almost uniformly in all directions.

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Spectral Reflectance Curve

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