ELECTRICAL MACHINES

II
(EE501)

Online Courseware (OCW)

B.TECH (3rd YEAR – 5th SEM)

(2020-21)

Prepared by: Mr. AMIT DEBNATH

Department of Electrical Engineering

Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

(Affiliated to MAKUT, West Bengal , Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NAAC – ‘A+’ Grade )
157/F Nilgunj road, Panihati, Kolkata-700114, West Bengal
Course Code: EE 501
Contact: 3L: 0T: 0P
Total Contact Hours: 36
Credit: 3

Prerequisites: Knowledge of Physics up to B. Tech. 1st year Physics-I course and Electrical
Machines – I.

Course Outcome: On completion of the course students will be able to

CO1. Describe the concept of rotating magnetic fields.
CO2. Demonstrate the operation of AC Machines.
CO3. Understand the principle of operation and know performance of synchronous machine and
fractional kW motors.
CO4. Analyse performance characteristics of ac machines.

Course Content

MODULE – I: Synchronous Machines (21L)

Construction of 3-phase Synchronous Machines, Description of salient & non-salient rotor, Advantages
of Stationary armature and Rotating field system, Name plate rating. 1L
Methods of excitation systems: Static excitation, Brushless excitation, DC generator. 1L Armature
reaction at various p.f, concept of Synchronous reactance. 2L
Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging, leading and unity p.f. loads. 1L
Voltage regulation of alternator by synchronous impedance method, Solution of problems. 2L
Open circuit characteristics, Short circuit characteristics of alternator and determination of synchronous
reactance. 1L
Theory for salient pole machine, Two reaction theory, phasor diagram at different loads. 2L
Power angle characteristics of Synchronous machines, Solution of problems. 1L
Short circuit ratio (SCR) – concept and significance. 1L
Method of control of Active & Reactive Power of an alternator. 1L Reasons and
advantages of Parallel operation. 1L
Synchronization of two or more alternators: Three lamps method, Synchroscope. 1L
Parallel operation of (i) an alternator and infinite bus and (ii) Between two alternators and Load
sharingbetween them.Solution of problems. 2L
Methods of starting of Three-Phase Synchronous Motor: by auxiliary motor and Damper winding.
1L
Effect of variation of excitation at infinite bus (over and under excitation) – V curves and inverted
Vcurves. 1L
Hunting and its prevention. 1L
Applications of synchronous motor, Synchronous condenser. 1L

MODULE – II: Single-Phase Induction Motor (11L)

Construction, Concept of Pulsating Torque, Double-revolving field theory. 2L
Development of equivalent circuit, Determination of equivalent circuit parameters, Solution of
problems. 2L
Methods of starting using auxiliary winding, Selection of capacitor value during starting and
running,Solution of problems. 2L
Speed-Torque characteristics, Phasor diagram, Condition of Maximum torque. 2L
Constructional features and performance characteristics of Universal Series Motors, Compensated and
uncompensated motors. 2L
Testing of Single phase motors and Applications. 1L

MODULE – III: Special Machines (4L)

Principle and construction of switched Reluctance motor, Permanent magnet machines, Brushless DC
machines, Hysteresis motor, Stepper Motor. 2L
Construction and Operational characteristics of Induction generator and Linear Induction motor.
2L

Text Books:
1. Electrical Machines, Nagrath & Kothary, TMH
2. The performance and design of Alternating Current machines, M.G.Say, C.B.S
Publishers & Distributors
3. Electrical Machinery, P.S. Bhimra, Khanna Publishers.
4. Electrical Machines, Ashfaq Husain, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
5. Electrical Machines, S.K.Bhattacharya, T.M.H Publishing Co. Ltd.

Reference Books:
1. Electrical Machines, Theory & Applications, M.N. Bandyopadhyay, PHI
2. Electrical Technology, H.Cotton, C.B.S. Publisher New Delhi
3. Electric Machinery & Transformes, Irving L. Kosow, PHI
4. Electric Machinery, A.E.Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. & Stephen D. Umans,
6thEdition, Tata McGraw Hill Edition.
5. Problems in Electrical Engineering, Parker smith, 9 thEdition, CBS publishers &
distributors.

CO-PO-PSO Mapping:

POs PSO
CO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

CO1 3 3 1 1 - - - 2 1 2 - 2 2 - 1

CO2 3 2 2 1 - 1 - 1 - 2 2 2 1

CO3 3 3 1 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 2 2 - 2 1

CO4 3 2 - - - - 2 - 1 2 2 1 -

Avg 3 2.5 1.3 1.3 - 1 - 1.5 1 1.3 1.5 2 2 1.6 1

 TOPIC:

 INTRODUCTION TO
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Lecture:
01
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

INTRODUCTION

A synchronous machine is an ac rotating machine whose speed under steady

state condition is proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature.
The magnetic field created by the stator currents rotates at the synchronous
speed ,and that created by the field current on the rotor is rotating at the
synchronous speed also, and a steady torque results. So, these machines are
called synchronous machines because they operate at constant speeds and
constant frequencies under steady state conditions. Synchronous machines are
commonly used as generators especially for large power systems, such as
turbine generators and hydroelectric generators in the grid power supply.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

CONCEPT OF DC GENERATOR
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy
into dc electricity. When conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on
the electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause
a flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR [ALTERNATOR]

INTRODUCTION

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current generators. They supply
the electric power used by all sectors of modern society. Synchronous machine is an
important electromechanical energy converter. Synchronous generators usually operate in
parallel forming a large power system supplying electrical power to consumers or loads. For
these applications the synchronous generators are built in large units, their rating ranging
form tens to hundreds of Megawatts. These synchronous machines can also be run as
synchronous motors.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR [ALTERNATOR]

INTRODUCTION

Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an external DC
source. Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a
rotating field system called rotor. In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the
rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then driven by external means
producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator
winding. Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings
for synchronous machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is
induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are
classified as rotating armature type or rotating field type.
In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding is on
the stator.

The generated emf or current is brought to the load via the slip rings. These type of
generators are built only in small units.

In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the armature
windings are on the stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair of slip rings and
the induced emf or current is supplied to the load via the stationary terminals.
Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified as

1. Hydro Generators

2. Turbo Generators

3. Engine driven Generators:

 TOPIC:

 CONSTRUCTION OF 3-PHASE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

SALIENT & NON-SALIENT ROTOR

Lecture:
02 ADVANTAGES OF STATIONARY
ARMATURE AND ROTATING FIELD
SYSTEM

NAME PLATE RATING

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Construction of a Synchronous Machine, i.e. alternator or motor consists of two
main parts, namely the stator and the rotor. The stator is the stationary part of
the machine. It carries the armature winding in which the voltage is generated.
The output of the machine is taken from the stator. The rotor is the rotating part
of the machine. The rotor produces the main field flux.

The synchronous generator or alternator is an

electrical machine that converts the
mechanical power from a prime mover into an
AC electrical power at a particular voltage
and frequency. The synchronous motor always
runs at a constant speed called synchronous
speed.

Synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC
motor. Construction of a synchronous motor is similar to an alternator (AC
generator). A same synchronous machine can be used as a synchronous motor
or as an alternator. Synchronous motors are available in a wide range,
generally rated between 150kW to 15MW with speeds ranging from 150 to
1800 rpm.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

The important parts of the Synchronous Machine are given below.

1. Stator
2. Rotor
3. Miscellaneous
Stator Construction
The stationary part of the machine is called Stator. It includes various parts like stator frame,
stator core, stator windings and cooling arrangement.

Stator Frame
It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron, and it protects the inner parts of the
machine.

Stator Core
The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from a number of stamps which
are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines of
force and accommodate the stator winding.

Stator Winding
Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3 phase or 1 phase winding
is placed. Enameled copper is used as winding material. The winding is star connected. The
winding of each phase is distributed over several slots. When the current flows in a
distributed winding it produces an essentially sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Rotor Construction
The rotating part of the machine is called Rotor. There are two types of rotor construction,
namely the salient pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.

Salient Pole Rotor

The term salient means projecting. Thus, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out
from the surface of the rotor core. The end view of a typical 6 pole salient pole rotor is shown
below in the figure.

Since the rotor is subjected to

changing magnetic fields, it is
made of steel laminations to reduce
eddy current losses. Poles of
identical dimensions are assembled
by stacking laminations to the
required length. A salient pole
synchronous machine has a non
uniform air gap. The air gap is
minimized under the pole centers
and it is maximum in between the
poles.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

They are constructed for the medium and low speeds as they have a large number of poles. A
salient pole generator has a large diameter. The salient pole rotor has the following important
parts.

Spider
It is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. It is keyed to the shaft and
at the outer surface, pole core and pole shoe are keyed to it.

Pole Core and Pole Shoe

It is made of laminated sheet steel material. Pole core provides least reluctance path for the
magnetic field and pole shoe distributes the field over the whole periphery uniformly to produce
a sinusoidal wave.

Field Winding or Exciting Winding

It is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core. DC supply is given to it through
slip rings. When direct current flow through the field winding, it produces the required
magnetic field.

Damper Winding
At the outermost periphery, holes are provided in which copper bars are inserted and
short-circuited at both the sides by rings forming Damper winding.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Non- Salient Pole Rotor or Cylindrical Rotor

In this type of rotor, there are no projected poles, but the poles are formed by the current
flowing through the rotor exciting winding. Cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of
high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum steel. It has a comparatively small diameter and long
axial length.

They are useful in high-speed machines. The cylindrical rotor type alternator has two or four
poles on the rotor. Such a construction provides a greater mechanical strength and permits
more accurate dynamic balancing. The smooth rotor of the machine makes less windage losses
and the operation is less noisy because of the uniform air gap.
The figure below shows the end view of the 2 pole and 4 pole cylindrical rotors.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Non- Salient Pole Rotor or Cylindrical Rotor

They are driven by steam or gas turbines. Cylindrical synchronous rotor synchronous
generators are called turbo alternators and turbo generators. The machines are built in a
number of rating from 10 MVA to over 1500 MVA. The biggest size used in India has a rating of
500 MVA installed in the super thermal power plant.

Non salient pole type rotors have the following parts. They are as follows

Rotor Core

The rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is placed on the shaft. At the outer
periphery, slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed.

Rotor Winding or Exciting Winding

It is placed on the rotor slots, and current is passed through the winding in such a way that
the poles are formed according to the requirement.

Slip Rings

Slip rings provide DC supply to the rotor windings.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Miscellaneous Parts

The miscellaneous parts are given below.

Brushes

Brushes are made of carbon, and they slip over the slip rings. A DC supply is given to the
brushes. Current flows from the brushes to the slip rings and then to the exciting windings.

Bearings

Bearings are provided between the shaft and the outer stationary body to reduce the friction.
They are made of high carbon steel.

Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine through
the shaft
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Advantages of stationary armature

and rotating field system

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the

Rotor and is connected to dc supply through two
slip rings. The three phase armature winding is
Placed on the stator. This arrangement has the
following advantages

(i)The stationary armature coils can be insulated easily.

(ii) Higher peripheral speed can be achieved in the rotor.

(iii) Cooling of the winding is more efficient.

(iv) Only two slip rings are required to give DC supply to

the field system

(v) Output current can be easily supplied to the load

circuit. Slip-rings and brushes are not necessary.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronous Machine Nameplate Details

 TOPIC:

 METHODS OF EXCITATION
SYSTEMS

Lecture:
03
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

The system which is used for providing the necessary field current to the rotor
winding of the synchronous machine, such type of system is called an excitation
system. In other words, excitation system is defined as the system which is used
for the production of the flux by passing current in the field winding. The main
requirement of an excitation system is reliability under all conditions of service, a
simplicity of control, ease of maintenance, stability and fast transient response.

The amount of excitation required depends on the load current, load power factor
and speed of the machine. The more excitation is needed in the system when the
load current is large, the speed is less, and the power factor of the system becomes
lagging.

The excitation system is the single unit in which the each alternator has its
exciter in the form of generator. The centralized excitation system has two or
more exciter which feeds the bus-bar. The centralized system is very cheap, but
the fault in the system adversely affects the alternators in the power plant
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

Types of Excitation System

The excitation system is mainly classified into three types.

They are

1. DC Excitation System

2. AC Excitation System

i. Rotor Excitation System

ii. Brushless Excitation System

3. Static Excitation System

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

1. DC Excitation System
The DC excitation system has two exciters – the main exciter and a pilot exciter. The exciter
output is adjusted by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) for controlling the output terminal
voltage of the alternator. The current transformer input to the AVR ensures limiting of the
alternator current during a fault.

When the field breaker is open, the field discharge resistor is connected across the field
winding so as to dissipate the stored energy in the field winding which is highly inductive.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

1. DC Excitation System

The main and the pilot exciters can be driven either by the main shaft or
separately driven by the motor. Direct driven exciters are usually preferred as
these preserve the unit system of operation, and the excitation is not excited
by external disturbances.

The voltage rating of the main exciter is about 400 V, and its capacity is about
0.5% of the capacity of the alternator. Troubles in the exciters of turbo
alternator are quite frequent because of their high speed and as such separate
motor driven exciters are provided as standby exciter.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

2. Brushless Excitation System

The rotating portion

being enclosed by a
dashed line
rectangle. The
brushless excitation
system consists an
alternator, rectifier,
main exciter and a
permanent magnet
generator alternator.
The main and the
pilot exciter are
driven by the main
shaft. The main
exciter has a
stationary field and a
rotating armature
directly connected,
through the silicon
rectifiers to the field
of the main
alternators.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

2. Brushless Excitation System

The pilot exciter is the shaft driven permanent magnet generator having
rotating permanent magnets attached to the shaft and a three phase stationary
armature, which feeds the main exciter field through silicon rectifiers, in the
field of the main alternator. The pilot exciter is a shaft driven permanent
magnetic generator having rotating permanent magnets attached to the shaft
and a 3-phase stationary armature, which feeds the main’s exciter through 3-
phase full wave phase controlled thyristor's bridges.

The system eliminates the use of a commutator, collector and brushes have a
short time constant and a response time of fewer than 0.1 seconds. The short
time constant has the advantage in improved small signal dynamic
performance and facilitates the application of supplementary power system
stabilizing signals.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

3. Static Excitation System

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Methods of excitation systems

3. Static Excitation System

In this system, the supply is taken from the alternator itself through a 3-phase
star/delta connected step-down transformer. The primary of the transformer is
connected to the alternator bus and their secondary supplies power to the
rectifier and also feed power to the grid control circuit and other electrical
equipment.

This system has a very small response time and provides excellent dynamic
performance. This system reduced the operating cost by eliminating the exciter
windage loss and winding maintenance.
 TOPIC:

 HUNTING IN SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE

Lecture:
15
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

A Synchronous Machine is named Synchronous because the speed of Rotor is
equal to the speed of rotating field. The speed of rotating field is determined by
the supply frequency and the number of poles in the machine and knows as
Synchronous speed. Any deviating in the speed of rotor from synchronous speed
will lead to synchronizing force which in turn will try to maintain the speed of
rotor to synchronous speed.

We come across the term HUNTING when we study about three phase
synchronous motor operations. The word hunting is used because after the
sudden application of load the rotor has to search or ‘hunt’ for its new
equilibrium position. That phenomenon is referred to as hunting in a
synchronous motor. Now let us know what is the condition of equilibrium in
synchronous motor.

The phenomenon of oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium position is
called Hunting. On the sudden application of load, the rotor search for its new
equilibrium position and this process is known as Hunting. The Hunting
process occurs in a synchronous motor as well as in synchronous generators if
an abrupt change in load occurs.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

A steady state operation of synchronous motor is a condition of equilibrium in

which the electromagnetic torque is equal and opposite to load torque. In steady
state, rotor runs at synchronous speed thereby maintaining a constant value of
torque angle (δ). If there is a sudden change in load torque, the equilibrium is
disturbed and there is resulting torque which changes the speed of the motor.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

The steady state or stable operation of a synchronous motor is a condition of

equilibrium. In it, the load torque is equal as well as opposite to the
electromagnetic torque. The rotor of the motor runs at synchronous speed in the
steady state condition, maintain a constant value of the torque angle δ. The
equilibrium gets disturbed if a sudden change occurs in the load torque. Thus, a
resulting torque takes place which changes the speed of the motor. It is given by
the equation shown below.

Where

J is the moment of inertia

ωM is the angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical units.

The speed of the motor slows down temporarily, and the torque angle δ is
sufficiently increased. This is done to restore the torque equilibrium and the
synchronous speed when there is a sudden increase if the load torque.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

The electromagnetic torque is given by the equation shown below.

If the value of δ is increased, the electromagnetic torque is also increased. As a

result, the motor is accelerated. As the rotor reaches the synchronous speed,
the torque angle δ is larger than the required value. Here the rotor speed
continues to increase beyond the synchronous speed.

As the rotor accelerates above synchronous speed, the torque angle δ

decreases. The point where the motor torque becomes equal to the load torque,
the equilibrium is not restored because now the rotor speed is greater than the
synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor continues to swing backwards and as
a result, the torque angle goes on decreasing.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

When the load angle δ becomes less than the required value, the mechanical
load becomes greater than the developed power. Therefore, the motor starts to
slow down. The load angle starts increasing again. Thus, the rotor starts to
swing or oscillates around the synchronous speed.

The motor responds to a decreasing load torque by a temporary increase in

speed and a reduction of the torque angle δ. Thus, the rotor swings and rotate
around the synchronous speed. Thus, this process of rotation of the rotor
speed equal or around the synchronous speed is known as Hunting. Since,
during the rotor oscillation, the phase of the phasor Ef changes about phasor
V. Thus, hunting is known as Phase Swinging.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Hunting in Synchronous Machine
Causes of Hunting
The various causes of hunting are as follows:-
1. Sudden changes of load.

2. Faults were occurring in the system which the generator supplies.

3. Sudden change in the field current.

4. Cyclic variations of the load torque.

Effect of Hunting
The various effects of hunting are as follows:-
1. It can lead to loss of synchronism.
2. It can cause variations of the supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker.
3. The possibility of Resonance condition increases. If the frequency of the torque
component becomes equal to that of the transient oscillations of the synchronous
machine, resonance may take place.
4. Large mechanical stresses may develop in the rotor shaft.
5. The machine losses increases and the temperature of the machine rises.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Hunting in Synchronous Machine

Reduction of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
The following technique given below is used to reduce the phenomenon of hunting.

1. By using flywheel
The prime mover is fitted with a flywheel. It is increase the inertia and maintains
the rotor speed at constant.

2. By using damper winding

Damper winding’s are placed in rotor pole faces. It is made from low resistance
copper bars. Which are short circuited at both end but copper rings. Damper
winding cuts the stator rotating flux. hence, emf is induced in it according to the
lenz’s Law. This emf oppose the oscillation. So By damping winding we can
damped the oscillation. The magnitude of damping torque is proportional to the
slip speed.

3. Designing synchronous machine with suitable synchronizing power

coefficients.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Applications of Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are usually used in large sizes because in small sizes
they are costlier as compared with induction machines.

• The principal advantages of using synchronous machine are as follows:

• Power factor of synchronous machine can be controlled very easily by

controlling the field current.

• It has very high operating efficiency and constant speed.

• For operating speed less than about 500 rpm and for high-power
requirements (above 600 KW) synchronous motor is cheaper than induction
motor such as rolling mills, chippers, mixers, pumps, compressors etc.

• In view of these advantages, synchronous motors are preferred for driving

the loads requiring high power at low speed; e.g.; reciprocating pumps and
compressor, crushers, rolling mills, pulp grinders etc.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Applications of Synchronous Motors

• Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power
factor improvement.

• As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading or lagging

power factor, it can be used for power factor improvement.

• A synchronous motor under no-load with leading power factor is connected in

a power system where static capacitors cannot be used.
 TOPIC:

 STARTING OF A SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR

Lecture:
14
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

The motor which runs at synchronous speed is known as the synchronous motor. The
synchronous speed is the constant speed at which motor generates the electromotive
force. The synchronous motor is used for converting the electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
The stator and the rotor are the two
main parts of the synchronous motor.
The stator becomes stationary, and it
carries the armature winding of the
motor. The armature winding is
the main winding because of
which the EMF induces in the
motor. The rotator carry the field
windings. The main field flux induces
in the rotor. The rotor is designed in
two ways, i.e., the salient pole rotor
and the non-salient pole rotor.
The synchronous motor uses the
salient pole for designing the
medium and low-speed motor. For
obtaining the high-speed cylindrical
rotor is used in the motor.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Main Features of Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are widely used in the industry for high-precision

applications. This motor runs at constant speed and it does not depend
on the torque acting on it. So it has a constant-speed torque
characteristic. The efficiency of synchronous motor is around 90%–93%

The speed of the synchronous motor is independent of the load, i.e., the
variation of the load does not affect the speed of the motor.

The synchronous motor is not self-starting. The prime mover is used for
rotating the motor at their synchronous speed.

The synchronous motor operates both for leading and lagging power factor.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

why the synchronous motor is not self-starting. So here is
a general method to start synchronous motor.

1. Three phase winding is given a three phase ac supply. Now a rotating

magnetic field is produced which is rotating at synchronous speed Ns rpm.

2. Now make the rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating magnetic
field at a speed very near to that of synchronous speed using some external
equipment like a diesel engine.

3. Now switch on the dc supply given to the rotor so that rotor poles are
produced. Now there are two fields one is rotating magnetic field produced
by stator while the other is produced by the rotor which is physically rotated
almost at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic field.

4. At a particular instant, both the fields are magnetically locked. The stator
field pulls rotor field into synchronism. Now we can remove external device
used to rotate rotor can be removed. But rotor will continue to rotate at the
same speed as that of rotating magnetic field i.e. Ns due to magnetic
locking.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

A synchronous motor is a device which converts the AC into mechanical work at

synchronous speed. The starting of the Synchronous Motor does not take place
on its own. This means that the Synchronous Motor is not Self Starting. The
average synchronous motor torque is zero at rest. For a net average torque, the
motor must reach near synchronous speed. Some auxiliary device is, therefore,
necessary to bring the synchronous motor up to near synchronous speed. The
methods most commonly used to bring the motor up to synchronous speed are:

1. Starting with the help of a damper winding.

2. Starting with the help of a separate small induction motor.

3. Starting by using a dc motor coupled to the synchronous motor.

4. Starting as an induction motor and run as a synchronous motor.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Starting with the help of a damper winding

To enable the synchronous

machine to start
independently as a motor, a
damper winding is used. It
is an additional winding in
the synchronous machine
which is provided in the pole
face slots in addition to the
normal field winding. Bars
of aluminum, copper,
bronze, or similar alloys are
inserted in slots of pole
shoes as shown in Fig.
These bars are short-
circuited by end-rings on
each side of the poles. Thus
these short-circuited bars
form a squirrel-cage
winding.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Starting with the help of a damper winding

When a three-phase supply is given
to the stator, the synchronous motor
with damper winding will start as a
three-phase induction motor with
the speed of rotation near to
synchronous speed.

When the motor has reached near

synchronous speed as an induction
motor, the d.c excitation is applied
to the stator winding (field
winding), and by the time the
exciter voltage has built up
sufficiently to magnetize the rotor
poles the rotor will be pulled into
synchronism. Once this speed has
been attained, the rotor continues to
run in synchronism.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Starting with the help of a damper winding

When the rotor rotates at synchronous
speed, the relative motion between
damper winding and the rotating
magnetic field is zero. Hence when the
motor is running as a synchronous motor,
there cannot be any induced e.m.f. in the
damper winding. So damper winding is
active only at the start, to run the motor
as an induction motor at start.

A reduced supply voltage may be

necessary, to limit the starting current
drawn by the motor. In this method since
starting is done as an induction motor, the
starting torque developed is rather low.
Hence a large capacity synchronous motor
may not be able to start on full load if
damper winding starting is employed.
This method is only suitable when the
load is small or there is no load.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Starting of a Synchronous Motor
As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
A squirrel cage induction motor does not provide high starting torque. So to achieve
this, instead of shorting the damper Winding, it is designed to form a three phase star
or delta connected winding.

The three ends of this winding are brought out through slip rings. An external
rheostat then can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So when the stator is
excited, the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance added
in the rotor provides high starting torque.

The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor
attains speed near synchronous, d.c. excitation is provided to the rotor, then motor
gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at synchronous speed.
The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Using Small D.C. Machine

Many times, large synchronous motors are provided with a coupled dc machine.
This machine is used as a dc motor to rotate the synchronous motor at
asynchronous speed. Then the excitation to the rotor is provided. Once the motor
starts running as a synchronous motor, the same dc machine acts as a dc
generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is then excited by
this exciter itself.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Starting of a Synchronous Motor

Using pony Motors

In this method, some external devices like small induction motor used to bring
rotor near to synchronous motor. This external device is called Pony motor.

When the rotor attains synchronous speed, dc excitation to the rotor is

switched on. After some time synchronism is developed and then pony motor is
decoupled. Due to synchronism promoter continues to rotate as a synchronous
motor.
 TOPIC:

 TWO REACTION THEORY –

SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE
Lecture:
13
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

We knew that in non-salient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to
the uniform air gap, the field flux, as well as armature flux varies sinusoidal in
the air gap. In non-salient pole alternators, air gap length is constant and
reactance is also constant. This two reaction theory was given by Professor
Andre Blondel so it is named as Blondel two reaction theory.

The theory proposes to resolve the given armature MMFs into two mutually
perpendicular components, with one located along the axis of the rotor of the
salient pole. It is known as the direct axis or d axis component. The other
component is located perpendicular to the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is
known as the Quadrature axis or q axis component.

Due to this, the MMFs of armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit
all the time hence can be added vectorially. But in salient pole type
alternators, the length of the air gap varies and the reluctance also varies.
Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary sinusoidal in the air gap. The
reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which MMFs act are different in the case
of salient pole alternators.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s are given special importance while given
less importance in a non-salient pole alternator. There are some disturbing
factors in salient pole alternators. The theory which gives the method of
analysis of the disturbing effects caused by salient pole construction is
called Two Reaction Theory.

According to this theory, the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two components
as,

1. The component acting along the pole axis called direct axis.

2. The component acting at right angles to the pole axis called Quadrature axis.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

The component which is acting along the direct axis can be magnetizing or
demagnetizing. The component which is acting along Quadrature axis is crossly
magnetizing. These components produce the effects of different kinds. The below
figure shows the stator MMF wave and the flux distribution in the air gap
along the direct axis and Quadrature axis of the pole.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

The reluctance offered to the MMF wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole
axis. This axis is called the direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The reluctance offered is
highest when the MMF wave is oriented at 90° to the field pole axis which is called
Quadrature axis i.e. q-axis.
The air gap is least in the center of the poles and progressively increase, on moving
away from the center. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on
salient poles produces the MMF wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts
along the pole axis which is the direct axis.
Let Ff be the MMF wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along
the direct axis. This MMF is responsible for producing an excitation EMF Ef which
lags Ff by all angle 90°.
When armature carries current, it produces its own MMF wave FAR. This can
be resolved into two components, one acting along d-axis (magnetizing or
demagnetizing) and one acting along q-axis (cross-magnetizing). Similarly, armature
current Ia also can in divided into two components, one along the direct axis and one
along Quadrature axis. These components are denoted as,
FAR :
Fd = component along the direct axis
Fq = component along Quadrature axis
Ia :
Id = component along direct axis
Iq = component along Quadrature axis
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

It can be observed from the figure that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90° to

Ef while Fq is produced by Iq which is in phase with Ef. The flux components
of ΦAR which are Φd and Φq respectively are also shown in the figure.

It can be noted that the reactance offered to flux along the direct axis is less
than the reactance offered to flux along Quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux
ΦAR is no longer along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered
along the direct and Quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags behind armature
current Ia.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reactance's

We already know that the armature reaction flux ΦAR has two components, one
is Φd along the direct axis and Φq along Quadrature axis. These fluxes are
proportional to the respective MMF magnitudes and the permeance of the flux
path oriented along the respective axes. Here below were are going to derive the
terminal voltage in Blondel two reaction theory.

Φd = Pd Fd

where Pd = Permeance along the direct axis

Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can
travel along the path.
But Fd = M.M.F. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The MMF is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature reaction
coefficient.
∴ Φd = Pd Kar Id
Similarly Φq = Pq Kar Iq
As the reluctance along the direct axis is less than that along Quadrature axis,
permeance Pd along the direct axis is more than that along Quadrature axis,
(Pd > Pq).
 TOPIC:

 SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO OF A

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Lecture:
12
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the

ratio of the field current required to generate rated voltage on an open circuit to
the field current required to circulate rated armature current on short circuit.
The short circuit ratio can be calculated from the open circuit
characteristic ( O.C.C) at rated speed and the short circuit
characteristic (S.C.C) of a three-phase synchronous machine

Short Circuit Ratio, or SCR, is the ratio of field current required to generate
rated voltage under open circuit condition, to the field current required to
circulate the rated armature current under three phase short circuit condition.
It is an important quantity of synchronous machine which helps in estimation
of operating characteristics. It is also useful for obtaining the size of machine
for a given rating and type.

The value of Short Circuit Ratio varies from 0.5 to 0.8 for Turbo Generator, 1
to 1.4 for Hydro generator and 0.4 to 0.5 for synchronous condenser.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Calculation
Short Circuit Ratio can easily be obtained from the Open Circuit (OCC) and Short
Circuit Characteristics (SCC) of Synchronous machine. Figure below shows the
OCC and SCC.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Calculation
From the figure, the short circuit ratio is given by
the equation shown below.

Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,

The direct axis synchronous reactance Xd is defined as the ratio of open circuit voltage for a
given field current to the armature short circuit current for the same field current.

For the field current equal to Oa, the direct axis synchronous reactance in ohms is given by
the equation shown below.

The per unit value of Xd is given as

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Calculation
But, the base impedance is

Therefore,

It is clear that the short circuit ratio is equal to the reciprocal of the per
unit value of the direct axis synchronous reactance.

In a saturated magnetic circuit, the value of Xd depends upon the degree

of saturation.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Significance of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Short Circuit Ratio is an important factor of the synchronous machine. It

affects the operating characteristics, physical size and cost of the machine. The
Large variation in the terminal voltage with a change in load takes place for the
lower value of the short circuit ratio of a synchronous generator. To keep the
terminal voltage constant, the field current (If) has to be varied over a wide range.

The synchronous inductance is given as

Therefore,

Hence, the short circuit ratio is directly proportional to the air gap reluctance
or air gap length.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Significance of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Low SCR:
Low value of SCR simply means greater value of Xd. The voltage regulation is
greatly affected by direct axis reactance. More the value of Xd, the poor will be the
voltage regulation. This means that, the terminal voltage will widely vary with
variation in load. In order to main constant terminal voltage, the field current
needs to be varied widely and therefore the load on the excitation system will
increase.
Greater value of direct axis reactance Xd also affects the stability of synchronous
machine. The synchronizing power of synchronous machine is defined as the
degree by which the machine has a tendency to get synchronized with the infinite
Grid just after experiencing disturbance. Low value of synchronizing power
means, the machine will have fewer tendencies to get synchronized again after
recovering from disturbance
Synchronizing Power is inversely proportional to reactance Xd, lower value of
short circuit ratio results in lower stability limit.

The only advantage of lower SCR is the lower value of armature current during
three phase short circuit.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

High SCR:

High value of short circuit ratio gives improved voltage regulation. Thus the
terminal voltage is practically constant during the load variation. It also results
in better stability limit due to increased value of synchronizing power.

But the disadvantage of high value of SCR is increased armature current during
three phase short circuit and increased machine size.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Size and Cost of Machine

SCR greatly affects the size and hence the cost of machine. To better understand
the effect of Short Circuit Ratio on the size of machine, let us assume that the air
gap length is doubled. The mutual inductance Md, in terms of direct axis (d-axis)
synchronous reactance Xd can be written as,

Md α 1/d-axis reactance

Doubling the air gap length doubles the reluctance. Therefore, the magnetic flux
linkage becomes half. Thus the mutual inductance reduces to half of its original
value. To main same open circuit terminal voltage, filed current must be
doubled.

The short circuit current Isc is given as

Isc = Ef/Xd
= MdωIf / √3ωLd
= MdIf / √3Ld
where Ld is direct axis inductance.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine

Size and Cost of Machine

When air gap length is doubled, mutual inductance Md and self inductance Ld are
equally affected. Therefore, the field current required to circulate the rated
armature current remains same. It is thus observed that when air gap length is
doubled,

Field current is doubled for maintain same open circuit voltage

Field current remains same for circulating rated armature current

As per the definition of SCR, doubling the air gap length doubles the short circuit
ratio. With double the air gap, the field current required to generate the same
open circuit terminal voltage is doubled. This requires greater cross-section of
field winding and hence greater field copper. This increased amount of copper
field winding can only be wound if the field pole size is increased. Subsequently,
the machine diameter increases and hence overall size, weight and cost of
machine increases.
 TOPIC:

 POWER ANGLE CURVE OF

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Lecture:
11
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine is the graphical representation of
electrical output with respect to the power angle. As we know, power angle is also
known as load angle, therefore it can be said that this curve is graphical
representation of electrical output of generator with respect to load angle.

First of all, we should know the mathematical relation between the electrical
output of synchronous machine in terms of load angle to get the graph of power
versus load angle. The electrical output of synchronous generator is given as
below.

Pe = (EfVt/Xs)Sinδ

Where Ef, Vt, Xs and δ are no load

excitation voltage, generator terminal
voltage, generator synchronous
reactance and load angle respectively.
You are requested to read “Power Flow
Equation through an Inductive Load”
for getting the detail of derivation part
of the above expression of electrical
output.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Importance of Power Angle Curve
Power Angle Curve tells us about the electrical power output of synchronous
machine when power angle δ is varied. It can be seen from this curve that as we
increase δ from 0 to 90°, the output increases sinusoidal. But a further increase in
power angle δ beyond 90°, the generator electrical output decreases.

This simply means that, the generator electrical output is less than the mechanical
input. Therefore, the poles of the machine will start to slip and eventually it will
lose synchronism. Thus the machine i.e. generator becomes unstable. Steady state
stability limit is the maximum power flows possible through a specific point
without lose of synchronism, when the power is increased gradually.
Therefore, steady state stability limit of synchronous machine corresponds to
power for load angle δ = 90°. To be accurate, it will be (EfVt/Xs).

Not only steady state stability limit rather transient stability limit is also affected
by the load angle at which machine is operating. Transient state stability limit is
basically the maximum amount of power flow possible without loss of synchronism
when a sudden disturbance occurs. The transient stability limit is determined
by Equal Area Criteria which uses power angle curve. Thus power angle curve is
very important for study of stability limit of synchronous machine.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

These three terms Torque angle, Power angle and Load angle are associated with
Synchronous machines that are synchronous generator and synchronous motor.
They named as Synchronous machines as they revolve at synchronous speed.

Synchronous Speed:
For a given number of poles and frequency of a system the Synchronous speed is
constant and is given by
Ns=120 f/p

Where

Ns= Synchronous speed in RPM

f= frequency

p= No. of Poles of Alternator

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Power or Load angle for Generator

The power angle is defined as the angle between Induced EMF and Terminal voltages.
For Generator action E leads V.

Where

P = power generated per phase, watts.

|E| = Induced EMF per phase, volts.

|V|= Terminal voltage per phase, volts

δ = Power angle, Angle between E and V

vectors (Considered Positive for
Generator)

X = Synchronous reactance of Generator,

Ohms
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Power or Load angle for Generator

The typical Load angle is around 30o Electrical. With

increased MW load the load angle also increases and
the generator delivers more power.

The only way to vary load angle is by varying the

input to the Turbine. The power output of a
synchronous Generator can be changed by changing
its mechanical power input. In case of alternators to
deliver desired output for variable loads, Governor is
used. Speed control governor maintain the turbine
speed constant by varying the input (Steam or Gas or
Water depends on type of Prime mover or Turbine) to
the Prime mover. Governors take feedback of load on
the generator and according to feed input to the
turbine.

Change in excitation using Static

Excitation or Brushless Excitation System gives
only the change in EMF and Reactive power supplied
by the machine.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Load angle or Power angle for Motoring Action
The power angle is defined as the angle between Induced Back EMF and applied
stator voltages.

For motor action E lags V.

Where

P = Mechanical equivalent power produced per phase, watts.

|E| = Induced Back EMF per phase, volts.

|V|= Supply voltage per phase, volts

δ = Power angle, Angle between E and V vectors (Considered Negative

for Motor)

X = Synchronous reactance of Motor, Ohms

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

What are the limits of Power angle

The system is stable only if the power angle δ is between -90° and +90° where
the slope dP/ dδ is positive, that is the range in which an increase in power
angle results in an increase in transmitted power.

Beyond this range generator or motor comes out of synchronism and results loss
of stability. Loss of stability leads to stalling of synchronous motor when that
motor is supplied with synchronous generator. High fluctuation of current and
voltage within the transmission network when two synchronous generators are
connected. The power transfer between the sources is alternatively positive and
negative with an average of zero.

Loss of synchronism is called loss of stability. If a synchronous machine losses

synchronism, it is tripped automatically by the loss of synchronism protection
and is not allowed to rotate asynchronously.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Power Angle Curve of Synchronous Machine

Power or Load angle for Transmission Line

The load angle is defined as the angle between sending Vs and receiving Vr end
voltages.

The power transfer of AC transmission lines is related with the rated voltage as
follows.

Where

P = Power transfer per phase, watts

|VS|= Sending end voltage, Volts per phase.

|VR|= Receiving end voltage, Volts per phase.

δ = Power angle, Angle between VS and VR vectors.

X = Reactance of transmission Line, Ohms

 TOPIC:

 ARMATURE REACTION IN
ALTERNATOR

Lecture:
10
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Armature winding in an electrical machine is the winding which carries the load
current. Under no-load condition, the armature current is zero. But as the
machine is loaded, load current flows through the armature winding and creates
magnetic flux. The effect of armature winding mmf or flux on the main working
flux created by field poles is called the armature reaction. This article outlines
the armature reaction in synchronous machine or alternator.

To better understand the armature reaction in synchronous machine, it is

essential to first understand the internal happening. For this purpose the
alternator operation is considered under different operating power factor and
loads as follows:

1. No-load Operation

2. Unity power factor (pf) load

3. Zero power factor lagging load

4. Zero power factor leading load

5. Lagging power factor load

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

No-load Operation

As mentioned earlier, the current through the armature winding of alternator is

zero for no-load operation; therefore there will not be any armature reaction. When
the field winding is excited by a DC source and the alternator / generator is
brought up to synchronous speed by adjusting the speed of prime-mover, no load
voltage or excitation voltage is generated across the alternator armature
terminals. The value of no-load or excitation armature terminal voltage is given as

Where Ef, Nph, Kw and Øf are excitation voltage, number of series turns per
phase, winding factor and filed flux respectively.

This generated excitation voltage across the armature terminal lags behind the
field flux Øf by 90 degree. In general, the emf generated by the filed flux always
lags behind the field flux by 90 degree in any machine.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Unity Power Factor Load

Now, when this alternator is connected to a balanced

3 phase load, a balanced three phase current starts
flowing in the three phases of alternator. As the load
is of unity power factor, this means that excitation
voltage Ef and armature current Ia will be in phase.
This can also be interpreted in another way like
excitation voltage and armature current attain their
The filed winding on rotor is fed by
peak simultaneously. Since excitation voltage is
DC source for setting up working or
maximum in phase “a”, this means armature current
main filed mmf. Field current
phase a will also be maximum. Though load current
indicated by cross and dot in the field
also flows in remaining two phases “b” and “c” but
winding on rotor, creates field mmf Ff
their magnitude is less than the maximum for this
and field flux Øf which are sinusoidal
instant of time. The mmf set up by the armature
distributed along the air-gap
current is called the armature reaction mmf.
periphery. This filed flux creates
North (N) and South (S) pole on the
rotor.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Unity Power Factor Load
Now, if we combine the space phasor of field mmf and armature mmf wave, then it
can easily be seen that the armature reaction mmf lags behind the filed mmf by 90
degree. This is shown in figure below.

The resultant air gap mmf will be the resultant

of filed mmf and armature reaction mmf. This
means,

Fr = Ff + Fa

If we neglect the saturation, then the field

flux Øf and armature flux Øa will be along
their respective mmf wave. This is shown
in the figure. Thus we can say that,
armature reaction flux lags behind the
field flux by 90 degree.
Therefore, armature reaction mmf at
unity power factor is entirely cross-
magnetizing in nature.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Zero Power Factor Lagging Load
Zero power factor lagging load means that the load current is lagging behind the
excitation voltage by 90 degree. This is shown in figure below.

The above phasor diagram has been

drawn using the following facts:

The excitation emf lags the field mmf

by 90 degree.

As saturation is neglected, the filed

flux will be along the field mmf.

Armature reaction mmf is along the

armature current.

From the above phasor diagram, it is clear that armature reaction mmf Fa is
in opposition of field mmf Øf. This means that the resultant air-gap mmf will
be equal to (Ff – Fa). Thus under zero power factor lagging loading
condition of alternator, the effect of armature reaction mmf is purely
demagnetizing.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Zero Power Factor Lagging Load
Due to zero power factor lagging load, the current in phase “a” of armature winding
will become maximum when the field poles have advanced by 90 degree in assumed
counter-clockwise direction. This is shown in figure below.

Carefully observe the above figure.

It can be seen that, in this case the
direction of armature reaction mmf
Fa will be along the phase “a” axis
and that of and filed mmf Øf will be
vertically downward. This direction
can be found by using right hand
screw rule. Thus we see that, both
the armature reaction and filed
mmf are opposing each other.
Hence, the effect of armature
reaction mmf is purely
demagnetizing in zero pf lagging
load condition.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Lagging Power Factor Load

The armature reaction mmf can be resolved into two components: One
along the excitation voltage Ef (FaCosθ) and another opposite to the field
mmf Ff (FaSinθ). Thus we can say that, the effect of armature reaction in
lagging pf load is cross-magnetizing as well as demagnetizing in nature.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Zero Power Factor Leading Load
The condition of zero pf leading load may be
depicted by phasor diagram in the same way that
for zero pf lagging load. This is shown below.

From the above phasor, it is clear that armature

reaction mmf is in the direction of field mmf. Thus
the effect of armature reaction mmf under zero
power factor leading loads is purely magnetizing.

The above conclusion can also be drawn by

analyzing the space phasor of the alternator. Zero
pf leading means that the current in phase “a” of
armature winding will be zero when the field poles
are behind the axis of phase “a“ winding by 90
degree as shown in figure below

Therefore, the direction of field mmf and

armature mmf will be same. Hence armature
reaction mmf is magnetizing in nature.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Armature Reaction in Alternator

Thus to summarize, the effect of armature reaction mmf on main filed mmf of
alternator is tabulated below.

Sr. No. Loading Condition Effect of Armature Reaction

1) No Load No effect
2) Unity Power Factor Cross-magnetizing
3) Zero Power Factor Lagging Purely demagnetizing
4) Zero Power Factor Leading Purely magnetizing
Cross-magnetizing and
5) Lagging Load
demagnetizing
 TOPIC:

 INDIRECT METHODS OF
VOLTAGE REGULATION

Lecture:
09
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation of Alternator by EMF method
The voltage regulation of alternator by EMF method involves the EMF quantities of all the
armature parameters (armature resistance, Armature leakage reactance, armature reaction).
The drop due to armature reaction is not considered, because it does not occur due to any of the
physical element but due to interaction of armature flux with main flux.

Hence, in order to quantify the voltage drop due to armature reaction, armature winding is
assumed to have a fictitious reactance called armature reaction reactance Xar Ω/phase.

Now, the Sum of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance is
called synchronous reactance of an alternator XS.

Since the drop due to the synchronous impedance is considered, this method is
called synchronous impedance method

This method is also called pessimistic method,

because the voltage regulation obtained by this
method is more than the actual value.

The EMF method requires the following data’s to determine the voltage regulation of alternator.

Armature resistance/phase
Open circuit characteristics (OCC)
Short circuit characteristics (SCC)
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation

Armature Resistance per phase

Armature Resistance per phase can be obtained by conducting stator resistance
test on the alternator. It is done by connecting the dc voltage supply to the stator
armature winding and the corresponding current is measured.

By doing so, the dc stator resistance is calculated and then by using the
formula Rac = 1.3 Rdc the ac stator resistance is determined.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation

Open circuit characteristics (OCC)

&
Short circuit characteristics (SCC)
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation

Open circuit characteristics (OCC)

&
Short circuit characteristics (SCC)
Determination of Zs from the graph
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation

For Unity Power factor,

For Lagging Power factor,

For Leading Power factor,

 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
In a 50-kVA, star-connected, 440-V, 3-phase, 50-Hz alternator, the effective armature
resistance is 0.25 ohm per phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2 ohm per phase and
leakage reactance is 0.5 ohm per phase. Determine at rated load and unity power
factor :
(a) Internal e.m.f. Ea (b) no-load e.m.f. E0 (c) percentage regulation on full-
load (d) value of synchronous reactance which replaces armature reaction.
 TOPIC:

 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF AN
ALTERNATOR
Lecture:
08
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator

The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage when
full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated
terminal voltage.

The value of the regulation not only depends

on the load current but also on the power
factor of the load.

For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is

always drop in the terminal voltage hence
regulation values are always positive.

While for leading capacitive load conditions,

the terminal voltage increases as load current
increases. Hence regulation is negative in
such cases.

The relationship between load current and the

terminal voltage is called load characteristics
of an alternator.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator

The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is the rise in voltage at

the terminals when the load is reduced from full load rated value to zero, speed
and field current remaining constant. It depends upon the power factor of the
load. For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage drop with the
increase of load, but for a certain leading power, the full load voltage regulation
is zero.

The voltage regulation is given by the equation shown below.

Where,
|Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase
|V| is the magnitude of rated terminal voltage per phase
In this case, the terminal voltage is the same for both full load and no load
conditions. At lower leading power factors, the voltage rises with the increase
of load, and the regulation is negative.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator
Determination of Voltage Regulation

In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading.

The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is

adjusted to its rated value V.

The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the
purpose) indicate the rated values at desired p.f. Then the entire load is thrown
off while the speed and field excitation are kept constant.

The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.

V = Rated terminal voltage

E0= No load induced e.m.f.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator
Determination of Voltage Regulation

In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by

direct loading becomes prohibitive.

Hence, other indirect methods are used as discussed below.

It will be found that all these methods differ chiefly in the way the no-
load voltage E0 is found in each case.

Methods OF Determining voltage regulation

1. Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method.

2. The Ampere-turn or M.M.F. Method.

3. Zero Power Factor or Poitier Method.

4. A.S.A. method
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator
Methods to determine voltage regulation
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Voltage Regulation of an Alternator

Direct method of determining the voltage regulation
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Voltage Regulation of an Alternator

Direct method of determining the voltage regulation
In this direct method, a three phase load is connected to star connected alternator
with the help of Triple Pole Single Throw switch. The field winding of alternator is
excited using an external DC supply. A rheostat is connected in series with the
field winding, to control the flux produced in the field winding.

Adjust the rheostat of the field winding so that, to produce the rated terminal
voltage. Close the load switch, apply the full load and measure the voltage at
full load V.

Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field excitation are kept
constant. The open circuit or no load voltage is measured and now the
regulation can be determined from the below equation.

But in the case of large machines, it becomes very difficult to determine the
voltage regulation by direct loading method. So it is very important to switch
over to the indirect methods of determination.
 TOPIC:

 SYNCHRONIZATION OF THREE
PHASE ALTERNATORS

Lecture:
07
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

A stationary generator must not be connected to live Bus bars because the induced
EMF is zero at standstill resulting in a short circuit.

The Synchronization procedure and the equipment for checking it are the same
whether one alternator is to be connected in parallel with another alternator, or an
alternator is to be connected to the infinite bus.

Before reconnecting the generator to the system in each time, it must be

synchronized with parameters of the power system network.

An improper synchronization can affect the healthy power system and results in
electrical and mechanical transients that can damage the prime mover,
generator, transformers and other power system components.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

What is Synchronization of Generators

The process of matching parameters such as voltage, frequency, phase angle,
phase sequence and waveform of alternator (generator) or other source with a
healthy or running power system is called synchronization.

Generator cannot deliver power to electric power system unless its voltage,
frequency and other parameters are exactly matched with the network.
Synchronization is accomplished by controlling the exciter current and the engine
speed of the generator
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Need of Synchronization
The need for synchronization arrives, particularly when two or more alternators
are working together to supply the power to the load. This is because electrical
loads are not constant and they vary with time and hence they necessitate the
interconnection of two or more alternators operating in parallel to supply larger
loads.

Synchronization matches various parameters of one alternator (or generator) to

another alternator or to the bus bar. The process of synchronization is also called
as paralleling of alternators.

1. Reliability

2. Continuity of Service

3. Load Requirements

4. High Efficiency

5. Expanded Capacity
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Conditions for Synchronization

There are certain requirements that must be met for successful paralleling of
alternators. The following conditions must be met in order to synchronize a
generator to the grid or with other generators.

1. Phase Sequence

2. Voltage Magnitude

3. Frequency

4. Phase Angle
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Techniques for Synchronization

There are different techniques being available for the synchronization of

alternators. The primary purpose of these techniques is to check all four
conditions discussed above. The common methods used for synchronizing the
alternators are given below.

1. Three Dark Lamps Method

2. Two Bright, One Dark Method

3. Synchroscope Method
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Three Dark Lamps Method

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Advantages of the Dark Lamp Method

This method is cheaper.

The correct phase sequence is easily determined.

Disadvantages of the Dark Lamp Method

The lamp becomes dark at about half of its rated voltage. Hence, it is
possible that the synchronizing switch might be switched off even
when there is a phase difference between the machine.

The filament of the lamp might burn out.

The flicker of the lamps does not indicate that which lamp has the
higher frequency.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

Synchroscope Method
 TOPIC:

 OPEN CIRCUIT
CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
OF ALTERNATOR AND
Lecture: DETERMINATION OF
06
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are performed on a Synchronous
Machine to find out the parameters of Synchronous Machine and hence to have
an idea of their performance. Open Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine is also
called No Load, Saturation or Magnetizing Characteristics

For getting the Open Circuit

Characteristics of Synchronous
Machine, the alternator is first
driven at its rated speed and the
open terminal voltage i.e. voltage
across the armature terminal is
noted by varying the field current.
Thus Open Circuit Characteristic or
OCC is basically the plot between
the armature terminal voltage
Ef versus field current If while
keeping the speed of rotor at rated
value. It shall be noted that for
OCC, the final value of Ef shall be
125% of the rated voltage.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

In the open circuit test for determining the synchronous impedance, the
alternator is running at the rated synchronous speed, and the load terminals are
kept open. This means that the loads are disconnected, and the field current is set
to zero. The circuit diagram is shown below.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

After setting the field current to zero, the field current is gradually increased step
by step. The terminal voltage Et is measured at each step. The excitation current
may be increased to get 25% more than the rated voltage. A graph is drawn
between the open circuit phase voltage Ep = Et/√3 and the field current If. The
curve so obtains called Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C). The shape is same as
normal magnetization curve. The linear portion of the O.C.C is extended to form
an air gap line.

The Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C) and the air gap line is shown in the
figure below.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

The field current should first be decreased to zero before starting the alternator.
Each ammeter should have a range greater than the rated full load value. The
alternator is then run at synchronous speed. Same as in an open circuit test that
the field current is increased gradually in steps and the armature current is
measured at each step. The field current is increased to get armature currents up
to 150% of the rated value.

In the short circuit test, the armature terminals are shorted through three
ammeters as shown in the figure below.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

The value of field current If and the average of three ammeter readings at each
step is taken. A graph is plotted between the armature current Ia and the field
current If. The characteristic so obtained is called Short Circuit Characteristic
(S.C.C). This characteristic is a straight line as shown in the figure below.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR
Calculation of Zs
The open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) and short circuit characteristic (S.C.C.) are
drawn on the same curve sheet. Determine the value of Isc and field current that
gives the rated alternator voltage per phase. the synchronous impedance Zs will
then be equal to the open circuit voltage divided by the short circuit current at the
field current which gives the rated e.m.f. per phase.

For the same value of field current. The

synchronous reactance is found as follows.

In figure , consider the field current If = OA

that the produces rated alternator voltage
per phase. corresponding to this field
current the open circuit voltage is AB.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS, SHORT CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR

DC resistance test
In this test, it is assumed that the alternator is star connected with the DC field
winding open as shown in the circuit diagram below.

It measures the DC resistance between each pair of terminals either by using an

ammeter – voltmeter method or by using the Wheatstone’s bridge. The average of
three sets of resistance value Rt is taken. The value of Rt is divided by 2 to obtain a
value of DC resistance per phase. Since the effective AC resistance is larger than the
DC resistance due to skin effect. Therefore, the effective AC resistance per phase is
obtained by multiplying the DC resistance by a factor 1.20 to 1.75 depending on the
size of the machine. A typical value to use in the calculation would be 1.25
 TOPIC:

 PHASOR DIAGRAMS OF
ALTERNATOR AT LAGGING,
LEADING AND UNITY P.F. LOADS.
Lecture:
05
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.

The phasor diagram is a very significant factor of the power system analysis. As
the output of the synchronous generator is alternating current, so it can easily be
explained by the phasor diagrams. If we draw the output voltage and current in
such a geometrically way that they show some relation among them, the
resultant diagram called a phasor diagram.

In the electrical power system, there are three main types of load first one is
resistive, the second one is capacitive and the third one is inductive.

We will connect all these three loads with the synchronous generator and will
see their effect and will draw their phasor diagram.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.
In the present article we are going to discuss one of the easiest methods of making
the phasor diagram for synchronous generator. Now, let us write the various
notations for each quantity at one place, this will help us to understand the
phasor diagram more clearly. In this phasor diagram we are going to use:

Ef which denotes excitation voltage

Vt which denotes terminal voltage

Ia which denotes the armature current

θ which denotes the phase angle between Vt and Ia

ᴪ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Ia

δ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Vt

ra which denotes the armature per phase resistance

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.
In order to draw the phasor diagram we will use Vt as reference. Consider these
two important points which are written below:

1. We already know that if a machine is working as a synchronous

generator then direction of Ia will be in phase to that of the Ef.

2. Phasor Ef is always ahead of Vt.

These two points are necessary for making the phasor diagram of
synchronous generator. Given below is the phasor diagram of synchronous
generator:

In this phasor diagram we have drawn the direction of the Ia is in phase with
that of the Ef as per the point number 1 mentioned above. Now let us derive
expression for the excitation emf in each case. We have three cases that are
written below:

Generating operation at lagging power factor.

Generating operation at unity power factor.
Generating operation at leading power factor.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.
(A) Generating operation at lagging power factor:
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.

(B) Generating operation at unity power factor

Here also we can derive the expression for

the Ef by first taking the component of the
Vt in the direction of Ia. But in this case the
value of theta is zero and hence we have ᴪ =
δ.

With the help of triangle BOD in the second

phasor diagram we can directly write the
expression for Ef as
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Phasor diagrams of alternator at lagging,

leading and unity p.f. loads.
(C) Generating operation at leading power factor
 TOPIC:

 PARALLEL OPERATION OF
ALTERNATOR

Lecture:
04
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Electric Power system are interconnected for economy and reliable operation.
Interconnection of ac power system requires synchronous generator to operate
in parallel with each other. In generating stations, two or more generators are
connected in parallel. In an interconnected system forming a grid the alternator
are located at different places. they are connected in parallel by means of
transformers and transmission line. Under normal operating conditions all the
alternator and synchronous motors in an interconnected system operate in
synchronism with each other.

An arrangement of generators for parallel operation enables a plant engineer to

adjust the machines for optimum operating efficiency and greater reliability's
the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units,
additional generators are parallel to carry the load. Similarly, if the load
demand decreases, one or more machines are taken off the line as per the
requirement. It allows the units to operate at a higher efficiency.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

When the load on a system exceeds the amount of power that a single or existing
number of generators can deliver, an additional generator is connected to the
system to deliver required power. This method of adding an alternator in the
existing system is called ‘parallel operation of alternators’.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

When the load on a system exceeds the amount of power that a single or existing
number of generators can deliver, an additional generator is connected to the
system to deliver required power. This method of adding an alternator in the
existing system is called ‘parallel operation of alternators’. It is essential to know
that the incoming alternator must be paralleled such that each machine is
supplying a proportionate amount of active and reactive power to the common
load. For which certain rules are to be kept in mind.

Interconnection of the electric power systems is essential from the economical

point of view and also for reliable and Parallel Operation. Interconnection of AC
power systems requires synchronous generators to operate in parallel with each
other. In generating stations, two or more generators are connected in parallel.
The alternators are located at different locations forming a grid connected system
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Reasons of Parallel Operation

Alternators are operated in parallel for the following reasons:

1. Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.

2. One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus,
the remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.

3. When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and
inspection, the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Reasons of Parallel Operation

4. If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of

the power supply.

5. Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial

installation according to the requirement to fulfill the increasing future
demand of the load.

6. Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and

the cost of energy generation.

7. It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall

economic generation.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Necessary Conditions for Parallel Operation of the Alternator

Most synchronous machines will operate in parallel with other synchronous machines.
The process of connecting one machine in parallel with another machine or with an
Infinite Bus bar system is known as Synchronizing. The machine carrying load is
known as Running Machines while the alternator which is to be connected in parallel
with the system is known as the Incoming machine.

The following condition should be satisfied for parallel operation are as follows:-

1. The phase sequence of the Busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltage
must be the same.

2. The Busbar voltages and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in
phase.

3. The terminal voltage of the incoming machine and the alternator which is to be
connected in parallel or with the Busbar voltage should be equal.

4. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine and the
frequency of the voltage of the Busbar should be equal.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

1. When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out

from service and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
2. Load supply can be increased.
3. During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the
other will operate in nearly full load.
4. High efficiency.
5. The operating cost is reduced.
6. Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
7. The generation cost is reduced.
8. Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
9. Reliability of the whole power system increases.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Parallel Operation of Alternator

General Procedure for Paralleling Alternators

These two machines are about to synchronize for supplying power to a load. Generator 2 is
about to parallel with the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed without
satisfying the above conditions.
1. To make the terminal voltages equal. This can be
done by adjusting the terminal voltage of incoming
machine by changing the field current and make it
equal to the line voltage of running system
using voltmeters.
2. There are two methods to check the phase sequence
of the machines. They are as follows
 First one is using a Synchroscope.
 Second method is three lamp method.

3. Next, we have to check and verify the incoming and

running system frequency. It should be nearly the
same. This can be done by inspecting the frequency of
dimming and brightening of lamps.

4. When the frequencies are nearly equal, the

two voltages (incoming alternator and running system)
will alter the phase gradually. These changes can be
observed and the switch, S1 can be made closed when
the phase angles are equal.
 TOPIC:

 REPULSION MOTOR

Lecture:
11
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
REPULSION MOTOR

A motor is an electrical device that converts electrical input into mechanical output, where
electrical input can be in current or voltage form and the mechanical output can be in torque
or force form. Motor consist of two main parts namely stator and rotor, where the stator is a
stationary part of the motor and the rotor is a rotating part of the motor. A motor that works
on the principle of repulsion is known as a repulsion motor, where the repulsion takes place
between two magnetic fields of either stator or a rotor. Repulsion motor is a single-
phase motor.

What is Repulsion Motor

A repulsion motor is a single-phase

electric motor that operates by providing
input AC (alternating current). The main
application of repulsion motor is electric
trains. It starts as a repulsion motor and
runs as an induction motor, where the
starting torque should be high for
repulsion motor and very good running
characteristics for induction motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
REPULSION MOTOR

Construction of Repulsion Motor

The main components of repulsion motor are stator, rotor and commutator brush
assembly. The stator carries a single phase exciting winding similar to the main
winding of single phase induction motor. The rotor has distributed DC winding
connected to the commutator at one end just like in DC motor. The carbon brushes
are short circuited on themselves.

The stator winding have

single phase AC winding
which produces the
working mmf in the air
gap. The brushes on
rotor are shown to be
shorted. As the rotor
circuit is shorted, the
rotor receives power from
stator by transformer
action.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Working principle of Repulsion Motor

The basic principle behind the working of repulsion motor is that “similar poles
repel each other.” This means two North poles will repel each other. Similarly, two
South poles will repel each other.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Working principle of Repulsion Motor

When the stator winding of repulsion motor is supplied with single phase AC, it
produces a magnetic flux along the direct axis as shown in figure above by arrow
mark. This magnetic flux when link with the rotor winding, creates an emf. Due
to this emf, a rotor current is produced. This rotor current in turn produces a
magnetic flux which is directed along the brush axis due to commutator assembly.
Due to the interaction of stator and rotor produced fluxes, an electromagnetic
torque is produced.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
REPULSION MOTOR

APPLICATION

1.It is used to drive compressors.

2.Petrol pumps

3.Air pump

4.Mixing machines

5.Machine tools

6.Hoists
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
REPULSION MOTOR

ADVANTAGES

1.starting torque high

2.speed regulation good

3.it can develop torque sudden heavy loads

4.starting current reduced

 TOPIC:

 LOSSES IN A SINGLE PHASE I.M

 POWER FLOW IN A SINGLE PHASE I.M

Lecture:  PROBLEM SOLVING

10
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
VARIOUS LOSSES IN AN INDUCTION MOTOR
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

POWER FLOW IN SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The performance of a single phase induction motor can be analyzed from its equivalent
circuit and in the same way as was done for a three-phase induction motor; except that
there are effects of both forward and backward components of power and torque in a
single phase induction motor. The same general power and torque expressions that were
used for three-phase induction motor can be used for a single-phase motor also for
forward and backward rotating fields. The net power and torque in a single phase
machine is the difference between the forward and backward components. The power
flow diagram of a single phase induction motor is exactly similar to a three phase motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

PROBLEM-01
A 230 V, four-pole, 50 Hz single-phase induction motor has the following
impedances at standstill:
Main Winding: r= 1.2 ohm, x=3.0 ohm
Auxiliary winding r= 3.0 ohm, x=4 ohm
Calculate the resistance to be added to the auxiliary winding in order to give
maximum torque at starting.

SOLUTION:

Given that,
Main Winding: r= 1.2 ohm, x=3.0 ohm
Auxiliary winding r= 3.0 ohm, x=4 ohm Therefore, additional resistance to be
added

Value of auxiliary winding resistance

required to achieve maximum Starting
torque is
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

PROBLEM-02
For a 200 V, single phase, 50 Hz, 1440 rpm induction motor, following are the test data:
Blocked rotor test: 48 V, 12 A, 520 W
No load Test: 220 V, 10.4 A, 380 W
Determine the equivalent circuit parameters.
SOLUTION:
 TOPIC:

 TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR

 APPLICATION OF SINGLE PHASE

Lecture: INDUCTION MOTOR
09
ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor

Demand of energy is growing day by day and along with it cost of energy rising
abruptly, so now it is necessary that the health of large motors which consumes
maximum power should be taken care off. Tests are required to check the condition
of the induction motor and to get the basic idea of malfunctioning of the motor.
Now a day lots of techniques and tests are available which gives the complete
health card of the induction motors. By monitoring some parameters like voltage,
current, temperature, and vibration problem could be diagnosed and by correcting
these faults the overall efficiency of the machine can be improved. This will reduce
the energy consumption and operational costs.

There are several types of single phase motors. What is however common to them
all is that they have a Start Winding, a Run Winding, and a Common connection
between them as shown below:
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor

Basic Parameters to be Checked

1. Current
As line current in all the phases are not equal so the arithmetic mean of the
phase currents should be used for evaluating machine performance.

2. Voltage
voltage is measured at the motor terminals and at the time of test, it should be
approximately balanced. Machine performance can be calculated by using
average of the phase voltages.

3. Power
power input to three phase motor can be calculated by a single watt meters as
they are connected in two watt meter method.

4. Resistance

It is necessary to check the ground resistance between the motor body and
terminals of the machine.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor

Tests for Induction Motor

Number of test is done on induction motor to check its different parameters. All
the tests are divided into two parts:

1. Preliminary Tests
These tests are performed to check the electrical or mechanical defects of the
induction motor.

A. Firstly check the components of motor like F. Temperature rise in bearing

i. Broken rotor bars
ii. High resistance joints G. Voltages in shaft
iii. Cracked end rings
H. Direction of rotation
B. No-load running current test
I. Level of noise
C. High potential test
J. Strength of vibration
D. Air-gap measurement
K. Air gap eccentricity
E. Balancing of current
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor

2. Performance Tests

The purpose of these tests is to estimate the performance characteristics of the

induction motor. Along with preliminary tests, these tests are also done on
motor.

A. No load test

B. Locked rotor test

C. Breakdown torque load performance test

D. Temperature test

E. Stray load loss test

F. Determination of efficiency test

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor

How To Test and Check Single phase Electric Motors

Testing of single phase motors is pretty easy if certain basic steps are followed.
The objective of any AC motor test is to determine the health status of the
motor. The basic steps in ascertaining the health of any motor are given below

(a) General Inspections

(b) Earth Continuity and Resistance Test

(c) Power Supply Test

(d) AC Motor Winding Resistance Test

(e) Insulation Resistance Test

(f) Running Amps Test

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor
General Inspections
For the single phase motor, do the following:

(1) Check the appearance of the motor. Check for burnt, damage to body or cooling fan or
shaft.

(2) Manually rotate motor shaft to examine bearing condition. Look out for smooth and free
shaft rotation. If shaft rotation is free and smooth, bearing is possibly in good condition,
otherwise consider replacing.

(3) As with all testing and inspections, the motor name plate provides valuable information
that will help to ascertain the true health of the motor. Examine the name plate thoroughly.

Earth Continuity and Resistance Test

With a multimeter, measure the resistance between motor frame (body) and earth. A good
motor should read less than 0.5 ohms. Any value greater 0.5 ohms indicate trouble with
the motor.

Power Supply Test

For single phase motors, the expected voltage is about 230V or 208V depending whether
you are using the UK or America voltage system. Check that the correct voltage is
applied to the motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor
AC Motor Winding Resistance Test
Check the motor winding resistance or ohms reading with a multimeter. Since there are
three terminals – S, C, R –in a single phase motor, measure winding resistance:
C to S, C to R and S to R. Measured Value S to R should be = C to S + C to R
As a rule to single phase motors, the following applies:
(1) Ohms reading between S and R should give the maximum reading of resistance
(2) Ohms reading between C and R should give the lowest reading of resistance
(3) Ohms reading between C and S should give some intermediate value between that for S
to R and C to R
Any deviation signifies a possibly bad electric motor or a motor that requires repairs.

Insulation Resistance Test

Insulation resistance failure of an electric motor is one of the first signs that the motor is
about to fail. Insulation resistance is usually measured between motor windings and
earth using an insulation tester or megometer. Set the voltage setting of the insulation
resistance tester to 500V and check motor windings to earth. Check C to E, S to E, R to
E. Minimum test value for a good electric motor is at least 1MΩ

Running Amps Test

With the motor running, check the full load amps (FLA) with a suitable meter or
preferably a clamp on meter and compare with the motor name plate FLA. Deviations
from rated FLA could signify problems with the motor under test.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor
Induction Motor Testing
All induction motors are tested before shipment from the factory. This testing can be
subdivided in two groups:
Routine tests
Complete or prototype tests

IEEE Std 112-1996 applies to induction motor testing.

Routine tests
The primary purpose of the routine test is to insure freedom from electrical and mechanical
defects, and to demonstrate by means of key tests the similarity of the motor to a "standard"
motor of the same design. The "standard" motor is an imaginary motor whose performance
characteristics would agree exactly with the expected performance predictions.

Depending on the size of the motor, some or all of the following tests could constitute routine
tests:
 Current balance
 Winding resistance measurement
 Insulation resistance measurement
 No-load running current and power
 Bearing temperature rise
 High-potential test
 Magnetic center at no-load
 Locked-rotor test
 Shaft voltages
 Air-gap measurement
 Noise
 Direction of rotation and phase sequence
 Vibration
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Testing of Single Phase Induction Motor
Induction Motor Testing
Prototype tests
The purpose of a prototype test is to evaluate all the performance characteristics of the motor.
This test consists of the following tests in addition to the routine tests:

 No-load saturation characteristic

 Locked rotor saturation characteristic

 Locked rotor torque and current

 Loss measurement including stray load loss

 Determination or measurement of efficiency

 Temperature rise determination

 Surge withstand test

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Applications of single phase induction motor

Single phase induction motors are used in smaller equipment where we require
less horsepower (for example, one horsepower). Some of the examples of real life
are
1. Pumps

2. Compressors

3. Small fans

4. Mixers

5. Toys

6. High-speed vacuum cleaners

7. Electric shavers

8. Drilling machines
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction Motor Maintenance

The maintenance program for every five/six months:

1. Clean motor thoroughly, blowing out dirt from windings, and wipe
commutator and brushes.

2. Check brushes and replace any that are more than half worn

3. Examine brush holders, and clean them if dirty. Make sure that brushes ride
free in the holders.

4. Drain, wash out and replace oil in sleeve bearings.

5. Check grease in a ball or roller bearings.

6. See that all covers, and belt and gear guards are in place, in good order, and
securely fastened.

7. Inspect and tighten connections on motor and control.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction Motor Maintenance

The maintenance program for every year :

1. Clean out and renew grease in ball or roller bearing housings.

2. Clean out magnetic dirt that may be clinging to poles.

3. Check clearance between shaft and journal boxes of the sleeve bearing motors
to prevent operation with worn bearings.

4. Clean out undercut slots in the commutator. Check the commutator for
smoothness.

5. Examine connections between commutator and armature coils.

6. Test insulation by megohmmeter.

7. Check air gap.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION MOTOR

The motor construction and the way electric power is supplied all give the induction motor several
advantages:

1. Low cost: Induction machines are very cheap when compared to synchronous and DC
motors. This is due to the modest design of induction motor.

2. Low maintenance cost: Induction motors are maintenance free motors unlike dc
motors and synchronous motors. The construction of induction motor is very simple
and hence maintenance is also easy, resulting in low maintenance cost.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION MOTOR

3. Ease of operation: Operation of induction motor is very simple because there is no

electrical connector to the rotor that supply power and current is induced by the movement
of the transformer performs on the rotor due to the low resistance of the rotating coils.

4. Speed Variation: The speed variation of induction motor is nearly constant. The speed
typically varies only by a few percent going from no load to rated load.

5. Durability: Another major advantage an induction motor is that it is durability. This

makes it the ideal machine for many uses. This results the motor to run for many years with
no cost and maintenance.

All these advantages make induction motor to use in many applications such as
industrial, domestic and in many applications.
 TOPIC:

 DOUBLE REVOLVING
FIELD THEORY
Lecture:
08  CROSS-FIELD THEORY
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

When a single-phase AC supply is given to the single-phase stator winding, a
sinusoidal pulsating magnetic field varying with time is produced. As the
produced magnetic very two times in a cycle, therefore, no torque will be
produced in the rotor and hence the rotor doesn't rotate. Therefore, single-phase
induction motors are not self-starting motor.

However, when an initial

rotation is given to the
rotor, it starts rotating in
that direction which can
be explained by the
double-revolving field
theory.

The magnetic field produced by the stator winding when an alternating supply is
given is equal to the sum of the two revolving fields rotating at synchronous
speed in the opposite direction of equal magnitude. The magnitude of each
revolving field is equal to one half of the maximum value of the alternating field,
i.e., φ1m / 2 where φ1m is the maximum value of an alternating field.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Let us consider the two revolving fields as φf ( rotating in an anti-clockwise

direction ) and φb ( rotating in a clockwise direction ). The resultant φR of these
two fields gives the value of the magnetic field produced by the alternating
supply ( i.e., alternating field ).

Consider the different instances as shown below :

(i). The two fields φf and φb are shown opposite to each other at start,
and resultant magnetic field φR = 0
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

(ii). After 90°, the two fields are rotated in such a way that both of them are now
pointing in the same direction.
The resultant magnetic field,
This instant gives maximum the magnitude of
the original alternating field.

So the continuous rotation of these two fields

( components ) gives the original stator magnetic
field. This is purely alternating in nature.

Now each separate component is rotated and

hence gets cut by the rotor conductors. Due to
cutting of flux emf get induced in rotor
conductors which circulate in the rotor current.
The rotor current produces rotor flux.

The rotor flux interacts with one

component φf produces a torque in an anti-
clockwise direction and the rotor flux interacts
with the second component φb produces a torque
in a clockwise direction.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

The double-field revolving theory states that, any alternating quantity (here,
alternating flux) can be resolved into two components having magnitude half of
the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity, and both these components
rotating in opposite direction.
Following figures will help you understanding the double field revolving theory.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Torque-speed characteristics
1. At +90deg, the forward
flux reaches a maximum
and the rotor links the
stator flux, the rotor
induces emf in the
forward direction and the
motor start rotating at
forwarding direction

2. At -90deg, the reverse

flux reaches the
maximum and the rotor
links this flux and induces By referring 1 and 2 we get equal and opposite rotation for
emf in the reverse a single cycle in the motor due to the alternating nature.
direction, hence the motor
start rotating in the The resultant torque is equal to zero and the motor rotor
reverse direction. remains stands at the previous position.
Here note that the That’s why the single-phase motor is not self-
direction of the rotor flux
starting.
is always in phase with
the stator flux.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Why single phase induction motor is not self starting

The stator of a single phase induction motor is wound with single phase
winding. When the stator is fed with a single phase supply, it produces
alternating flux (which alternates along one space axis only). Alternating flux
acting on a squirrel cage rotor can not produce rotation, only revolving flux can.
That is why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

How to make single phase induction motor self starting

As explained above, single phase induction motor is not self-starting. To

make it self-starting, it can be temporarily converted into a two-phase motor
while starting. This can be achieved by introducing an additional 'starting
winding' also called as auxiliary winding.

Hence, stator of a single phase motor has two windings: (i) Main winding and
(ii) Starting winding (auxiliary winding). These two windings are connected in
parallel across a single phase supply and are spaced 90 electrical degrees
apart. Phase difference of 90 degree can be achieved by connecting a capacitor
in series with the starting winding.

Hence the motor behaves like a two-phase motor and the stator produces
revolving magnetic field which causes rotor to run. Once motor gathers speed,
say up to 80 or 90% of its normal speed, the starting winding gets disconnected
form the circuit by means of a centrifugal switch, and the motor runs only on
main winding.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Cross-field Theory
It is interesting to know how a single-phase induction motor can able to rotate
when an initial rotation or starting torque is given to it. This can understand
with the help of cross-field theory

1. Motor at Standstill

Consider standstill conditions with the stator

winding connected to a single-phase AC
supply. The stator current establishes a field
acts along the horizontal axis is shown in the
below figure. The stator field is alternating in
polarity and varying sinusoidal with time.
The alternating field will induce an emf in the
rotor winding by transformer action. This emf
will cause a current to flow in the rotor
winding.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Cross-field Theory
The directions of currents in the rotor conductors are also shown. The rotor
currents establish poles on the rotor surface and these are in direct line ( along
the horizontal axis ) with the stator poles. The axis of the stator and rotor fields
are aligned. The forces on the rotor conductors in top the half are in a downward
direction, whereas the forces on the rotor conductors in the bottom half are in
the upward direction. The two sets of forces will cancel and the rotor will
experience no torque.

2. Motor at Running

When, however, the rotor is made to rotate say in the clockwise direction by
some external means, the rotor conductors cut across the stator field, causing an
emf to be generated in them. The direction of the EMFs as determined by
Fleming's right-hand rule, will be outward in one side of the vertical axis and
inward on the other side of the vertical axis as indicated by the dots and crosses
as shown in below figure. The generated rotor EMFs vary in phase with the
stator current and flux. The rotor current due to these EMFs lags by nearly 90°
owing to low 'R' and high 'X' of the rotor winding.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Double Revolving Field Theory

Cross-field Theory
The field produced by the rotor currents is at
right angles to the field by the stator currents
hence it is known as cross field. Thus the
stator field Q, and rotor field Qr are in space
and time Quadrature. These two fields will
produce a resultant revolving field which will
rotate in the direction in which the rotor was
given an initial rotation. Hence torque is
exerted on the rotor and the motor continues
to rotate.

From the above discussion, it may be concluded that :

(i) At stand still there can be no cross field only the pulsating stator field and
therefore the inherent starting torque of a single-phase induced motor is zero.

(ii) If, however, the rotor is made to run by some external means, then it will
continue to develop torque in the direction of rotation.
 TOPIC:

 AC Series Motor

Lecture:
07
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

AC series motors are also known as the modified DC series motor as their
construction is very similar to that of the DC series motor. Before we discuss
these modifications, here it is essential to discuss what is the need and where
do we need to do modifications. In order to understand this, consider this
question. What will happen when we give an AC supply to DC series motor?
Answer to this question is written below:

1. An AC supply will produce an unidirectional torque because the direction of

both the currents (i.e. armature current and field current) reverses at the
same time.

2. Due to presence of alternating current, eddy currents are induced in the

yoke and field cores which results in excessive heating of the yoke and field
cores.

3. Due to the high inductance of the field and the armature circuit, the power
factor would become very low.

4. There is sparking at the brushes of the DC series motor.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

So considering above points we can say that we don’t have good performance of
DC series motor on the application of AC supply. Now in order to reduce the eddy
currents there is need to laminate the yoke and field core. This is our first
modification to DC series motor.

What about power factor how we can improve power factor? Now the power
factor is directly related to reactance of the field and armature circuit and we
can reduce the field winding reactance by reducing the number of turns in the
field winding.

But there is one problem: on reducing the number of turns, field mmf will
decrease and due to this the air gap flux decrease. The overall result of this is
that there is an increase in the speed of the motor but decrease in the motor
torque which is not desired. Now how to overcome this problem? The solution to
this problem is the use of compensating winding. On the basis of the usage of
compensating winding we have two types of motor and they are written below:

1. Conductively compensated type of motors.

2. Inductively compensated type of motors.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Principle of Operation of A.C. Series Motor

An ordinary d.c. Series motor will run in the

same direction regardless of the polarity of the
supply. The direction of the torque depends upon
the relative directions in space of flux and
armature current. If the line terminals are
reversed, both the field and armature current
are reversed, the direction of torque remains
unchanged. Therefore, the motor continuous to
rotate in the same direction.

So when normal d.c. series motor is connected to

an A.C. supply, both field and armature currents
reverse simultaneously and unidirectional
torque is produced in the motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Principle of Operation of A.C. Series Motor

Consider the case of a two-pole motor and

let the alternating current be in its
positive half, then the polarity of the field
poles and the currents flowing through
the armature conductors be as indicated
in Figure. The armature conductors carry
inward currents +ve under N-pole and
outward currents -ve under S-pole. By
applying Fleming's left hand rule it will be
seen that the torque developed in the
armature will try to rotate in an anti-
clockwise direction.

During the next instant, the alternating current goes through the negative
half cycle Now the current through the field winding and armature will
also change. It will be again seen that the armature will tend to rotate in
the same direction because of uniform torque produce the two halves of the
cycle.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Principle of Operation of A.C. Series Motor

Thus a series motor can run on both the d.c. supply and A.C. supply.

The performance of dc Series motor works on A.C. Supply is not satisfactory

due to the following reasons

1. The efficiency is low. This is because of the increase in core losses due to
alternating flux.

2. The reactance of the field and armature winding increases as the supply given
is alternating, which makes the machine to run at low power factor.

3. Considerable sparking at brushes will occur. This is due to poor commutation.

The voltage induced by transformer action in the coil undergoing
commutation further intensifies commutation difficulties.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor
Constructional Features

Modification in Design of A.C. Series Motor :

Some modifications are required to have a satisfactory performance of d.c. series

motor on A.C supply, when it is called as A.C. series motor. The modifications are :

1. Fully laminated poles and yokes must be used in order to reduce eddy current
losses.

2. The power factor can be improved by reducing field and armature reactance's.
In order to reduce field reactance, the field winding is designed with less number of
turns. Lower pole flux also reduces the transformer emf in the commutating coil.

3. The motor should be provided with a large number of poles each supplying less
flux per pole.

4. Reduction in the number of turns on the field winding would also reduce field
flux. To keep the torque constant on the shaft, the armature turns should be
increased proportionately. This increases the armature reaction and
armature reactance.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor
Constructional Features

Modification in Design of A.C. Series Motor :

5. Compensating winding should be employed to lower the armature reactance as

far as possible. Compensation also improves commutation.

The flux produced by compensating winding is opposite to that produced by the

armature and effectively neutralizes the armature reaction.

6. The armature coils are single turn coils and brushes of less width are used not
to short circuit more than two coils at a time.

7. The air gap is made very small so that fewer field turns can be used per pole.

8. The frequency of supply used is reduced. The transformer emf is proportional

to frequency and hence good commutation is easy at lower frequencies.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Performance Characteristics

The speed-torque characteristic

for dc operation would lie
somewhat higher as shown
dotted. This is because of
reactance voltage drops [Ia(xf +
Xa)] in ac operation so that
Ea and hence speed is lower for a
given current and torque. The
power factor of an ac operated
AC Series Motor is rather poor
because of the large series
reactance (xf + Xa).

The characteristics of a.c. series motor is similar to that of d.c. series motor. The
torque is proportional to the square of the armature current and speed is inversely
proportional to the armature current. The series motors must always be started with
some load on it because at the starting speed of the motor is very high due to high
starting torque i.e., 3 to 4 times the full load torque.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Phasor Diagram of A.C. Series Motor

The resistance drops due to resistances of series field, inter-pole winding,

compensating winding and of armature respectively are in phase with armature
current. The reactance drops due to reactance of series field, inter-pole winding
compensating winding and of armature respectively lead current by 90 . The
generated armature counter emf is the terminal phase voltage is equal to the
phasor sum of Eg and all the impedance drops in series.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Conductively Compensated Type of Motors

Given below is the circuit diagram of the conductively compensated type of

motors. In this type of motor, the compensating winding is connected in series
with the armature circuit. The winding is put in the stator slots. The axis of the
compensating winding is 90o (electrical) with main field axis.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor
Inductively Compensated Type of Motors

Given below is the circuit diagram of the inductively compensated type of motors.
In this type of motor, the compensating winding has no interconnection with the
armature circuit of the motor. In this case, a transformer action will take place as
the armature winding will act as primary winding of the transformer and the
compensation winding will acts as a secondary winding. The current in the
compensating winding will be in phase opposition to the current in the armature
winding.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Given below is the complete schematic diagram of the single phase AC series
motor with all the modifications (i.e. compensating winding and inter pole).
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AC Series Motor

Applications
The Universal motor is used for the purposes where speed control and high
values of the speed are necessary.

There are numerous applications where universal motors are used, such as

1. Portable drills

2. Hair dryers

3. Grinders

4. Table-fans
5. Blowers

6. Polishers

7. Kitchen appliances etc.

Universal motors of a given horse power rating are significantly smaller

than other kinds of a.c. motors operating at the same frequency.
 TOPIC:

 LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR

Lecture:
06
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The load test on induction motor helps us to compute the complete

performance of induction motor means to calculate the various quantities i.e.
torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc at different loading. In this test
supply voltage is applied to motor and variable mechanical load is applied to
the shaft of motor. Mechanical load can be provided by brake and pulley
arrangement. The input current, input voltage, input power and speed of
motor are observed from the experiment and various performance quantities
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

1. SLIP

Due to the three-phase supply given to stator of an induction motor, a

rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is set up in the stator of the
motor. The speed with which this rotating magnetic field rotates is known as
synchronous speed and is given by

Where
f =supply frequency.
P =no of poles on the stator of the rotor.

The actual speed of the rotor Nr is always less than the synchronous speed.
So the slip of the motor is given by

This value of slip at full load lies between 2 to 5%

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

2. TORQUE
Mechanical loading is applied on induction motor by means of brake and
pulley arrangement. The belt can be tightened or loosened by means of
threaded rods with handles fixed on frame. Two spring balances are provided
at the end of belt. The net force exerted at the brake drum can be obtained
from the readings of the two spring balance i.e. F1 and F2
Net force exerted on drum, F= (F1-F2 ) Kgf

Where d = effective diameter of brake drum in meter.

3. OUTPUT POWER
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

4. INPUT POWER

The input power can be calculated from the readings of wattmeter connected
in the circuit

5. POWER FACTOR

The power factor can be calculated from the following relation

6. EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of induction motor can be calculated using the relation

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Experimental Setup Connection

1) Set the single-phase Variac at minimum voltage and brake pulley arrangement at no load.
2) Switch ON the power supply and start the induction motor.
3) Now gradually increase the applied voltage by varying the Variac very slowly up to the rated voltage.
4) Increase the mechanical load on motor step by step and note down the various reading for load.
5) Switch OFF the supply and disconnect the motor.
6) Calculate the various quantities and draw the various curves
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

OBSERVATION TABLE

CALCULATION
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
LOAD TEST OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

RESULT
 TOPIC:

 DETERMINATION OF SINGLE-
PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
BY TEST
Lecture:
05
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE

Similar to a three phase induction motor, the various tests can be performed on single phase
induction motor. The results of these tests can be used to obtain the equivalent circuit
parameters of a single phase induction motor.
The tests usually conducted are :
1. No load test or open circuit test

2. Blocked rotor test or short circuit test

Single Phase Induction Motor

SPECIFICATIONS
Single Phase squirrel cage induction motor
POWER : 1 HP(0.75 KW)
CURRENT : 1.8Amp
SUPPLY: 230V AC 50 Hz input.
Speed : 1450 rpm
Speed sensor with speed indicator
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE

The efficiency of large motors can be determined by directly loading them and by
measuring their input and output powers. For larger motors it may be difficult to arrange
loads for them. Moreover power loss will be large with direct loading tests. Thus no load
and blocked rotor tests are performed on the motors. As the name suggest no load test is
performed when rotor rotates with synchronous speed and there is no load torque. This test
is similar to the open circuit test on transformer. Actually, to achieve synchronous speed in
an induction motor is impossible. The speed is assumed to be synchronized. The
synchronous speed can be achieved by taking slip = 0 which creates infinite impedance in
the rotor branch.

This test gives the information regarding no-load losses such as core loss, friction loss and
windage loss. Rotor copper loss at no load is very less that its value is negligible. Small
current is required to produce adequate torque. This test is also well-known as running
light test. This test is used to evaluate the resistance and impedance of the magnetizing
path of induction motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
No Load Test of Induction Motor

The impedance of magnetizing path of induction motor is large enough to obstruct flow of current.
Therefore, small current is applied to the machine due to which there is a fall in the stator-impedance
value and rated voltage is applied across the magnetizing branch. But the drop in stator-impedance
value and power dissipated due to stator resistance are very small in comparison to applied voltage.
Therefore, there values are neglected and it is assumed that total power drawn is converted into core
loss. The air gap in magnetizing branch in an induction motor slowly increases the exciting current and
the no load stator I2R loss can be recognized.

One should keep in mind that current should not exceed its rated value otherwise rotor accelerates
beyond its limit.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
No Load Test of Induction Motor

The test is performed at poly-phase voltages and rated frequency applied to the stator terminals. When
motor runs for some times and bearings get lubricated fully, at that time readings of applied voltage,
input current and input power are taken. To calculate the rotational loss, subtract the stator I2R losses
from the input power.

The test is conducted by rotating the motor without load. The input current, voltage and power are
measured by connecting the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter in the circuit. These readings are
denoted as :

Vo , Io and Wo .
Now

1. Wo = Vo Io cosΦ

The motor speed on no load is almost equal to its synchronous speed hence for practical purposes, the
slip can be assumed zero. Hence r2/s becomes ∞ and acts as open circuit in the equivalent circuit. Hence
for forward rotor circuit, the branch r2/s + j x2 gets eliminated.

While for a backward rotor circuit, the term r2/(2 – s) tends to r2/2. Thus xo is much higher then the
impedance r2/2 + j x2. Hence it can be assumed that no current can flow through and that branch can be
eliminated.
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
No Load Test of Induction Motor

Equivalent
circuit of
induction
motor

This test is similar to open circuit test on a transformer. A

single-phase auto-transformer is used to supply rated
voltage at the rated frequency. The motor is runs at no
load. The power input is measured by wattmeter. With
the motor running at no load, the slip is very close to
zero. It may be therefore be assumed that s = 0 . Under No load test Equivalent circuit of
these conditions r2/2s become infinity and r2/2(2-s)=r2/4 induction motor
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
No Load Test of Induction Motor

Blocked rotor test Equivalent circuit of

induction motor
Equivalent circuit of induction motor

With the rotor at rest, single-phase voltage, applied to stator main winding, is increased gradually from
zero so that rated current flow in main winding. Under these condition i.e. with rotor stationary, the slip
s =1 and the voltage required to circulate full-load current is very low. Therefore, flux is small and the
magnetizing current flowing to X m is also very low.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE

Experimental Set up for NO load and Blocked Rotor Test of I.M

Experimental Table:
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
CALCULATION
BLOCKED ROTOR TEST
NO-LOAD TEST
Vsc = Applied short circuit voltage on stator side.
Vo = No-load applied voltage. Isc = Short circuit current.
Io = Exciting current or No-load current Wsc = Total ohmic loss.
Wo = Core loss and Mechanical loss.
Therefore no load power factor
cosΦ= Wo/ Vo X Io
Since resistance of main winding r1 is already
measured, effective rotor resistance r2= Rsc –r1

Since the leakage reactance x1 and x2 can’t be

separated out, it is assumed that x1=x2=1/2 Xsc
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TEST ON AN INDUCTION MACHINE
CALCULATION

RESULT
 TOPIC:

 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF
SINGLE_PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Lecture:
04  DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor is a well-known device which works on the principle of transformer. So it is

also called the rotating transformer. That is, when an EMF is supplied to its stator, then as a result
of electromagnetic induction, a voltage is induced in its rotor. So an induction motor is said to be a
transformer with rotating secondary. Here, primary of transformer resembles stator winding of an
induction motor and secondary resembles rotor.

The induction motor always runs below the synchronous or full load speed and
the relative difference between the synchronous speed and speed of rotation is
known as slip which is denoted by s.

Where, Ns is synchronous speed of rotation which is given by-

The Equivalent circuit of a Single Phase Induction Motor can be obtained by two methods
named as the Double Revolving Field Theory and Cross Field Theory. Firstly the equivalent circuit
is developed on the basis of double revolving field theory when only its main winding is energized.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the machine such as its
Ohmic losses and also other losses.

The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The copper losses are occurred in the
windings so the winding resistance is taken into account. Also, the winding has inductance
for which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and also a term called power
factor comes into the picture. There are two types of equivalent circuits in case of a three-
phase induction motor-
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

If we draw the circuit with referred to the stator then the circuit will look like-

Here,

R1 is the winding
resistance of the stator.

X1 is the inductance of the

stator winding.

Rc is the core loss

component.

XM is the magnetizing R2’ is the rotor winding resistance with referred to stator
reactance of the winding. winding.

R2/s is the power of the X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator
rotor, which includes winding.
output mechanical power
and copper loss of rotor. R2(1 – s) / s is the resistance which shows the power which is
converted to mechanical power output or useful power. The
power dissipated in that resistor is the useful power output or
shaft power.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The equivalent circuit of a single phase induction motor can be developed on the basis of two
revolving field theory. To develop the equivalent circuit it is necessary to consider standstill or
blocked rotor conditions.

The motor with a blocked rotor merely acts like a transformer with its secondary short circuited,
Em being e.m.f. induced in the stator.

The motor may now be

viewed from the point of
view of the two revolving
field theory. The two flux
components induce e.m.f.
Emf and Emb in the
respective stator winding.
Since at standstill the two
oppositely rotating fields are
of same strength, the
magnetizing and rotor
impedances are divided into
two equals halves connected
in series.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

There is a difference between single phase and three phase equivalent circuits. The single
phase induction motor circuit is given by double revolving field theory which states that

A stationary pulsating magnetic field

might be resolved into two rotating
fields, both having equal magnitude
but opposite in direction. So the net
torque induced is zero at standstill.
Here, the forward rotation is called
the rotation with slip s and the
backward rotation is given with a
slip of (2 – s). The equivalent circuit
is-
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Induction Motor at Standstill on the basis of Two
Revolving Field Theory.

At Standstill,
Slip=1
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

If the core losses are neglected the equivalent circuit is modified as shown in fig. The
core losses, here, are handled as rotational losses and subtracted from the power
converted into mechanical power; the amount of error thus introduced is relatively small.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
1. Without core loss
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
1. Without core loss
Under standstill condition, s = 1 and 2 - s = 1 hence Zf = Zb and hence Vf = Vb . But in the running
condition, Vf becomes almost 90 to 95% of the applied voltage.

1. Zeq = Z1 + Zf + Zb = Equivalent impedance

2. I2f =Vf /((r2/s) + j x2) where Vf = I1 x Zf I2f = Current through forward rotor referred to stator
I2b = Vb/((r2/2-s) + j x2) I2b = Current through backward rotor referred to stator

4. Tf = forward torque = Pf /(2πN/60) N-m

3. Pf = Power input to forward field rotor
= (I2f)2 (r2/s) watts Tb = backward torque = Pb /(2πN/60) N-m

Pb = Power input to backward field rotor T = net torque = Tf - Tb

= (I2b)2 (r2/2-s) watts
Tsh = shaft torque = Pout /(2πN/60) N-m
Pm = (1 - s){ Net power input}
= (1 - s) (Pf - Pb ) watts
5. %η = (net output / net input) x 100
Pout = Pm - mechanical loss - core loss
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
1. With core loss
If the core loss is to be considered then it
is necessary to connect a resistance in
parallel with, in an exciting branch of
each rotor is half the value of actual core
loss resistance.
Zof = Equivalent impedance of exciting
branch in forward rotor
= ro║(j xo )
and Zob = Equivalent
impedance of exciting branch in backward
rotor
= ro║(j xo )
... Zf = Zof ║( r2/s + j x2 )

All other expressions remains same as

stated earlier in case of equivalent circuit
without core loss.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Calculation of Power of Equivalent Circuit

1. Find Zf and Zb.

2. Find stator current which is given by Stator voltage/Total circuit impedance.

3. Then find the input power which is given by

Stator voltage × Stator current × Cos(Ɵ)
Where, Ɵ is the angle between the stator current and voltage.

4. Power Developed (Pg) is the difference between forward field power and backward
power. The forward and backward power is given by the power dissipated in the respective
resistors.

5. The rotor copper loss is given by- slip × Pg.

6. Output Power is given by-

Pg – s × Pg – Rotational loss.
 TOPIC:

 CAPACITOR START AND

CAPACITOR RUN INDUCTION MOTOR

SHADED POLE INDUCTION MOTOR

Lecture:
03
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

Single Phase Induction Motor Types – As far as normal running is concerned, a single winding is
sufficient. But all motors must be self start. The auxiliary winding is provided to produce finite
torque at standstill and is displaced in space with respect to the main winding. Current in second
winding is supplied from same Single Phase source as the main winding, but is caused to have a
phase difference by various methods which are discussed later. The combination of a space
displacement between the two windings together with a time displacement between the currents,
produces a machine which has a finite torque at standstill, and therefore, it can self start. Such a
motor can be reversed by changing the phase sequence, which requires that polarity of one of the
windings be reversed.

Earlier it was a common practice to use the auxiliary winding only during start and run-up. It
used to be be disconnected with the help of a centrifugal switch, or relay once the motor speed
reaches around 75% of the full speed. In such an arrangement auxiliary winding can have lower
rating and its parameters can be chosen to improve the starting performance. But then switching
arrangement is a disadvantage. Present practice is to use auxiliary winding all the time but then
its parameters are to be chosen to provide a compromise between starting and running
performance and its rating has to be chosen on continuous basis.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor has a cage rotor, and its stator has two windings
known as Main and Auxiliary Windings. The two windings are displaced 90 degrees in
space. There are two capacitors in this method one is used at the time of the starting and
is known as starting capacitor. The other one is used for continuous running of the motor
and is known as RUN capacitor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

So this motor is named as Capacitor Start
Capacitor Run Motor. This motor is also known
as Two Value Capacitor Motor. Connection
diagram of the Two valve Capacitor Motor

There are two capacitors in this motor represented by CS and CR. At the starting, the two capacitors
are connected in parallel. The Capacitor Cs is the Starting capacitor is short time rated. It is almost
electrolytic. A large amount of current id required to obtain the starting torque. Therefore, the value of
the capacitive reactance X should be low in the starting winding. Since, XA = 1/2πfCA, the value of
the starting capacitor should be large.

The rated line current is smaller than the starting current at the normal operating condition of the
motor. Hence, the value of the capacitive reactance should be large. Since, XR = 1/2πfCR, the value of
the run capacitor should be small.

As the motor reaches the synchronous speed, the starting capacitor Cs is disconnected from the circuit
by a centrifugal switch Sc. The capacitor CR is connected permanently in the circuit and thus it is
known as RUN Capacitor. The run capacitor is long time rated and is made of oil filled paper.
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

Working of Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

The capacitors Cs and Cr are connected parallel during motor starting.

Cs = start capacitor
Cr = run capacitor
Rm = main winding resistance
Xm= main winding inductive reactance
Ra = series resistor connected in the auxiliary winding
Xa = auxiliary winding inductive reactance
S = centrifugal switch

When the stator windings are energized from a 1-phase supply, the main winding carries current Im and
the starting winding carries current Ia. During starting, high torque is required. For high torque, a high
current is required. In order to draw high current, the auxiliary winding capacitance reactance should be
low. As capacitive reactance is given by
Xs = 1/(2πfCs)
To have low Xs, Cs should be large.
During normal working, the line current required is small. In order to draw low current, the auxiliary
winding capacitance reactance should be large. As capacitive reactance is given by
Xr = 1/(2πfCr)
To have large Xr, Cr should be low.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

Working of Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

The capacitors Cs and Cr are connected in

parallel during motor starting. The value of
the capacitor Cs is chosen such that current
Im is made to lag current Ia by greater than
90°. Therefore, there is a time-phase
difference (α) and 90° space difference
between the two currents. These two currents
produce a rotating magnetic field which
starts the motor.

When the motor reaches speed about 70 to

80 % of synchronous speed, the capacitor
Cs disconnects from the supply by
centrifugally operated switch S. The
capacitor Cr is permanently connected to the
circuit.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

The Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor.

Fig(a) shows the phasor diagram when at the starting both the capacitor are in the
circuit and ϕ > 90⁰. Fig (b) shows the phasor when the starting capacitor is
disconnected, and ϕ becomes equal to 90⁰.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Two Value Capacitor Motor

This type of motor is quiet

and smooth running. They
have higher efficiency than
the motors that run on the
main windings only. They are
used for loads of higher
inertia requiring frequent
starts where the maximum
pull-out torque and efficiency
required are higher. The Two
Value Capacitor Motors are
used in pumping equipment,
refrigeration, air compressors,
etc.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

1. The reversal of the direction of rotation of this motor is possible by reversing the
line connections of either main winding or the auxiliary winding. This can be
done when the motor is at standstill condition.

2. The starting torque is high.

3. The motor has very less noise. Also motor runs smoothly.

4. These Motors are costly.

5. They have higher efficiency than motors running on main winding alone.

6. Start Capacitor Cs is short-time rated and has electrolytic construction.

7. Run Capacitor Cr is long-time rated and has oil filled paper construction.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor
The shaded pole induction motor is simply a self-starting single-phase induction motor whose one
of the pole is shaded by the copper ring. The copper ring is also called the shaded ring. This copper
ring act as a secondary winding for the motor. The shaded pole motor rotates only in one particular
direction, and the reverse movement of the motor is not possible.

The magnetic field induced in the main

poles is induced into the shaded coil by
means of an Induction Principle. The
magnetic flux produced is an
alternating field. The flux induced in
the shaded coil opposes the flux of the
main pole. During the positive cycle,
the flux opposition is more towards the
main field and vice-versa during the
negative cycle. Thus, a rotating
magnetic field is developed due to the
field oppositions during the entire
cycle. Therefore, a unique torque is
developed which is able to rotate the
rotor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or
projected poles. These poles are shaded by copper band or ring which is inductive in
nature. The poles are divided into two unequal halves. The smaller portion carries
the copper band and is called as shaded portion of the pole.
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

Working Principle

When a single phase supply is given to the

stator of shaded pole induction motor an
alternating flux is produced. This change of flux
induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this
shaded portion is short circuited, the current is
produced in it in such a direction to oppose the
main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind
the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase
difference between these two fluxes produces
resultant rotating flux.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor
Construction of Shaded Pole Induction Motor
Stator – The stator of the shaded pole motor has a salient pole. The salient pole means the poles of the
magnet are projected towards the armature of the motor. Each pole of the motor is excited by its
exciting coil. The copper rings shade the loops. The loops are known as the shading coil.

The poles of the motor are laminated. The lamination means multiple layers of material are used for
making the poles. So, that the strength of the pole increases.
The slot is constructed at some distance apart from the edge of the poles. The short-circuited copper coil
is placed in this slot. The part which is covered with the copper ring is called the shaded part and which
are not covered by the rings are called unshaded part.

Rotor – The shaded pole motor uses the squirrel cage rotor. The bars of the rotor is skewed at an angle
of 60º. The skew can be done for obtaining the better starting torque.
The construction of the motor is very simple because it does not contain any commutator, brushes,
collector rings, etc. or any other part. The shaded pole induction motor does not have any centrifugal
switch. Thus, the chances of failure of the motor are less.

The centrifugal switch is the type of electrical switch that starts operating by using the centrifugal force,
generated by the rotating shaft. It is also used for controlling the speed of the shaft.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaded Pole Motor

The advantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Very economical and reliable.

2. Construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal switch.

The disadvantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Low power factor.

2. The starting torque is very poor.

3. The efficiency is very low as, the copper losses are high due to presence of copper
band.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

Applications of the Shaded Pole Induction Motor

The various applications of the Shaded Poles Motor are as follows:-

1. They are suitable for small devices like relays and fans because of its low cost
and easy starting.

2. Used in exhaust fans, hair dryers and also in table fans.

3. Used in air conditioning and refrigeration equipment and cooling fans.

4. Record players, tape recorders, projectors, photocopying machines.

5. Used for starting electronic clocks and single-phase synchronous timing motors.

This type of motor is used to drive the devices which require low starting torque.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Limitation of Shaded Pole Induction Motor

Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but this type of
motor has a lot of limitation as :

1. The starting torque is poor.

2. The power factor is very low.

3. Due to I2R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.

4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the additional set of
shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing other, direction can be reversed
but the method is complicated and expensive.

5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are usually
available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.
 TOPIC:

 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SINGLE

PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

 STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE

Lecture:
02 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
A Single Phase Induction Motor consists of a single phase winding which is mounted on the stator of the
motor and a cage winding placed on the rotor. A pulsating magnetic field is produced, when the stator
winding of the single-phase induction motor shown below is energized by a single phase supply.

The word Pulsating means that the field builds up in

one direction falls to zero and then builds up in the
opposite direction. Under these conditions, the rotor of
an induction motor does not rotate. Hence, a single
phase induction motor is not self-starting. It requires
some special starting means.

If the 1 phase stator winding is excited and the

rotor of the motor is rotated by an auxiliary means
and the starting device is then removed, the motor
continues to rotate in the direction in which it is
started.

The performance of the single phase induction motor is analyzed by the two theories.
One is known as the Double Revolving Field Theory, and the other is Cross
Field Theory. Both the theories are similar and explain the reason for the production
of torque when the rotor is rotating.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

The single-phase IM has no starting torque, but has resultant torque, when it rotates at any other
speed, except synchronous speed. It is also known that, in a balanced two-phase IM having two
windings, each having equal number of turns and placed at a space angle of (electrical), and are
fed from a balanced two-phase supply, with two voltages equal in magnitude, at an angle of , the
rotating magnetic fields are produced, as in a three-phase IM. The torque-speed characteristic is
same as that of a three-phase one, having both starting and also running torque.

So, in a single-phase IM, if an auxiliary

winding is introduced in the stator, in
addition to the main winding, but placed
at a space angle of (electrical), starting
torque is produced. The currents in the
two (main and auxiliary) stator windings
also must be at an angle of , to produce
maximum starting torque, as shown in a
balanced two-phase stator. Thus, rotating
magnetic field is produced in such motor,
giving rise to starting torque.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

1. Single-phase Induction Motors: 2. Commutator-Type, Single-Phase Motors:

A. Split-phase motors A. Repulsion motor.

(i) Resistance-start motor B. Repulsion-induction motor.

(ii) Capacitor-start motor C. A.C series motor.

(iii) Permanent-split (single- D. Universal motor.

value) capacitor motor
3. Single-phase Synchronous Motors:
(iv) Two-value capacitor motor.
A. Reluctance motor.
B. Shaded-pole induction motor.
B. Hysteresis motor.
C. Reluctance-start induction motor.
C. Sub-synchronous motor
D. Repulsion-start induction motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Split Phase Induction Motor

The Split Phase Motor is also known as a Resistance Start Motor. It has a single cage rotor, and its stator
has two windings known as main winding and starting winding. Both the windings are displaced 90
degrees in space. The main winding has very low resistance and a high inductive reactance whereas the
starting winding has high resistance and low inductive reactance.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Split Phase Induction Motor

A resistor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The current in the two windings is not equal
as a result the rotating field is not uniform. Hence, the starting torque is small, of the order of 1.5 to 2
times of the started running torque. At the starting of the motor both the windings are connected in
parallel.

As soon as the motor reaches the speed of about

70 to 80 % of the synchronous speed the starting
winding is disconnected automatically from the
supply mains. If the motors are rated about 100
Watt or more, a centrifugal switch is used to
disconnect the starting winding and for the smaller
rating motors relay is used for the disconnecting of
the winding.

A relay is connected in series with the main winding. At the starting, the heavy current flows in the
circuit, and the contact of the relay gets closed. Thus, the starting winding is in the circuit, and as the
motor attains the predetermined speed, the current in the relay starts decreasing. Therefore, the relay
opens and disconnects the auxiliary winding from the supply, making the motor runs on the main
winding only.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Split Phase Induction Motor

The Torque Speed Characteristic of the Split Phase motor

Here, n0 is the point at which the centrifugal

switch operates. The starting torque of the
resistance start motor is about 1.5 times of
the full load torque. The maximum torque is
about 2.5 times of the full load torque at
about 75% of the synchronous speed. The
starting current of the motor is high about 7
to 8 times of the full load value.

The direction of the Resistance Start motor

can be reversed by reversing the line
connection of either the main winding or the
starting winding. The reversal of the motor
is possible at the standstill condition only.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Split Phase Induction Motor

Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor

This type of motors are cheap and are suitable for easily starting loads where the frequency of
starting is limited. This type of motor is not used for drives which require more than 1 KW
because of the low starting torque. The various applications are as follows:-

1. Used in the washing machine, and air conditioning fans.

2. The motors are used in mixer grinder, floor polishers.

3. Blowers, Centrifugal pumps.

4. Drilling and lathe machine.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

A Capacitor Start Motors are a single phase Induction Motor that employs a capacitor in
the auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference between the current in
the main and the auxiliary windings. The name capacitor starts itself shows that the motor
uses a capacitor for the purpose of the starting. The figure below shows the connection
diagram of a Capacitor Start Motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

The capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and has two windings on the stator. They are
known as the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding. The two windings are
placed 90 degrees apart. A capacitor CS is connected in series with the starting winding. A
centrifugal switch SC is also connected in the circuit.

IM is the current in the main winding which is

lagging the auxiliary current IA by 90 degrees as
shown in the phasor diagram above. Thus, a
single phase supply current is split into two
phases. The two windings are displaced apart by
90 degrees electrical, and their MMF’s are equal
in magnitude but 90 degrees apart in time phase.

The motor acts as a balanced two-phase motor.

As the motor approaches its rated speed, the
auxiliary winding and the starting capacitor is
disconnected automatically by the centrifugal
switch provided on the shaft of the motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

The Torque Speed Characteristic of the motor is

The characteristic shows that

the starting torque is high. The
cost of this motor is more as
compared to the split phase
motor because of the additional
cost of the capacitor. The
Capacitor start motor can be
reversed by first bringing the
motor to rest condition and then
reversing the connections of
one of the windings.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

Characteristics of the Capacitor Start Motor

The capacitor starts motor develops a much higher starting torque of about 3 to 4.5
times of the full load torque. To obtain a high starting torque, the two conditions are
essential. They are as follows:-

1. The Starting capacitor value must be large.

2. The valve of the starting winding resistance must be low.

The electrolytic capacitors of the order of the 250 µF are used because of the high
Var rating of the capacitor requirement.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

Applications of the Capacitor Start Motor

The various applications of the motor are as follows:

1. These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia

where frequent starting is required.

2. Used in pumps and compressors

3. Used in the refrigerator and air conditioner compressors.

4. They are also used for conveyors and machine tools.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

The Permanent Split Capacitor motor also has a cage rotor and the two windings named as
main and auxiliary windings similar to that of a Capacitor Start and Capacitor Start
Capacitor Run Motor. It has only one capacitor connected in series with the starting
winding. The capacitor C is permanently connected in the circuit both at the starting and
the running conditions.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

It is also called as a Single Value Capacitor Motor. As

the capacitor is always in the circuit and thus this
type of motor does not contain any starting switch.
The auxiliary winding is always there in the
circuit. Therefore, the motor operates as the
balanced two-phase motor. The motor produces a
uniform torque and has noise free operation.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

Advantages of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor

The Single Value Capacitor Motor has following advantages.

1. No centrifugal switch is required.
2. Efficiency is high.
3. As the capacitor is connected permanently in the circuit, the power factor is high.
4. It has a higher pullout torque.

Limitations of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor

The limitations of the motor are as follows:-

1. The paper capacitor is used in the motor as an Electrolytic capacitor cannot be used for
continuous running. The cost of the paper capacitor is higher, and size is also large as
compared to the electrolytic capacitor of the same ratings.

2. It has low starting torque, less than full load torque.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

Applications of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor

The various applications of the split motor are as follows:

1. Used in fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners.

2. Used in refrigerator compressors.

3. Used in office machinery.

 Name of the course : Electrical Machines – II
Course Code : EE 501
Semester : 5th

SL.NO. TOPIC LECTURE

NO.
1. Construction, Concept of Pulsating Torque, 2
Double-revolving field theory.
2. Development of equivalent circuit, Determination 2
of equivalent circuit parameters, Solution of
problems.

Lecture: 3. Methods of starting using auxiliary winding, 2

Selection of capacitor value during starting and
01 running, Solution of problems.
4. Speed-Torque characteristics, Phasor diagram, 2
Condition of Maximum torque.
5. Constructional features and performance 2
characteristics of Universal Series Motors,
Compensated and uncompensated motors.

6. Testing of Single phase motors and Applications. 1

 TOPIC:

 INTRODUCTION TO SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR

Lecture:
01  CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
INTRODUCTION

As the power requirements of single load systems are usually small, all our homes, offices are supplied
with a single–phase A.C. supply only. To get proper working conditions using this single-phase supply,
compatible motors have to be used. Besides being compatible, the motors have to be economical,
reliable and easy to repair. One can find all of these characteristics in a single phase induction motor
readily. Single-phase induction motors are a great choice for domestic appliances. Their simple design
and low cost have attracted many applications.

Single-phase induction motors are the simple motors which operate on single -phase A.C. and in
which torque is produced due to induction of electricity caused by the alternating magnetic
fields. Single phase induction motors are of different types based on their starting conditions and
various factors.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
INTRODUCTION
We use the single-phase power system more widely than three phase system for domestic
purposes, commercial purposes and some extent in industrial uses. Because, the single-
phase system is more economical than a three-phase system and the power requirement in
most of the houses, shops, offices are small, which can be easily met by a single phase
system.

The single phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair and
maintain. Due to all these advantages, the single phase motor finds its application in vacuum
cleaners, fans, washing machines, centrifugal pumps, blowers, washing machines, etc.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
INTRODUCTION
There are two basic reasons for the use of single-phase motors rather than 3-phase motors.
1. For reason of economy, most houses, offices and also rural areas are supplied with single phase A.C,
as power requirements of individual load items are rather small.
1. The economics of the motor and its branch circuit.
Fixed loads requiring not more than 0.5KW can generally be served most economically with
single phase power and a single phase motor.
Single phase motors are simple in construction, reliable, easy to repair and comparatively
cheaper in cost and therefore, find wide use in fans, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing
machines, other kitchen equipment, tools, blowers, centrifugal pumps, small farming appliances etc.

Because of above reasons motors of comparatively small ratings (mostly in fractional KW ratings)
are manufactured in large number to operate on single phase ac at standard frequencies. An
indication of the number of such motors can be had from the fact that the sum of total of all
fractional kilowatt motors in use today far exceeds the total of integral kilowatt motors of all types.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
TYPES OF SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR

The Single phase motors may be of the following types:

1. Single-phase Induction Motors: 2. Commutator-Type, Single-Phase Motors:

A. Split-phase motors A. Repulsion motor.

(i) Resistance-start motor B. Repulsion-induction motor.

(ii) Capacitor-start motor C. A.C series motor.

(iii) Permanent-split (single- D. Universal motor.

value) capacitor motor
3. Single-phase Synchronous Motors:
(iv) Two-value capacitor motor.
A. Reluctance motor.
B. Shaded-pole induction motor.
B. Hysteresis motor.
C. Reluctance-start induction motor.
C. Sub-synchronous motor
D. Repulsion-start induction motor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage induction motor except there is
single phase two windings (instead of one three phase winding in 3-phase motors) mounted on the stator and
the cage winding rotor is placed inside the stator which freely rotates with the help of mounted bearings on
the motor shaft.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Similar to a three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor also has

two main parts;
1. Stator

2. Rotor
1. Stator
In stator, the only difference is in the stator
winding. The stator winding is single-phase
winding instead of three-phase winding. The
stator core is the same as the core of the three-
phase induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two
winding are used in stator except in shaded-
pole induction motor. Out of these two
windings, one winding is the main winding and
the second is auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy
current loss. The single-phase supply is given to
the stator winding (main winding)
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The construction of the rotor of the

single phase induction motor is
similar to the squirrel cage three
phase inductions motor. The rotor is
cylindrical in shape and has slots all
over its periphery. The slots are not
made parallel to each other but are
bit skewed as the skewing prevents
magnetic locking of stator and rotor
teeth and makes the working of
induction motor more smooth and
quieter. The squirrel cage rotor
consists of aluminum, brass or
copper bars. These aluminum or
copper bars are called rotor
conductors and are placed in the
slots on the periphery of the rotor.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings
called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor
are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like
a cage and hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction motor". As the bars are
permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and
it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted.
The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of single phase
induction motor very simple and robust.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Identifying starting and running winding of single

phase induction motor

The running winding also called the main winding

while the starting winding is better known with
name of "auxiliary winding".

If you open the single phase motor , you will find out that
your motor have two types of winding in which one is made
from thick wire gauge and one thin . the thick wire gauge
winding is main winding and thin wire gauge winding is
starting winding.

For example is you find out two winding and one

winding are made from 21 SWG and 2nd winding is
made from 26 Then 21 SWG is greater in size which
running winding or main winding and 26 SWG
winding is staring or auxiliary winding.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Identifying starting and running winding of single

phase induction motor
 TOPIC:

 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE
MOTOR

 PERMANENT MAGNET
Lecture:
21 MOTORS
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
The Switched Reluctance (SR) motor is very
different from the other poly-phase machines
described because both the stator and the
rotor have salient poles. The motor can only
be used in conjunction with its specific power
converter and control, and consequently only
overall characteristics are relevant.

The SR motor produces torque through the

magnetic attraction which occurs between
stator electromagnets and a corresponding
set of salient poles formed on a simple rotor
made only of ferromagnetic material.

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a type of motor doubly salient with phase
coils mounted around diametrically opposite stator poles. There are no windings
or permanent magnets on the rotor. The rotor is basically a piece of (laminated)
steel and its shape forms salient poles. The stator has concentrated coils.
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
Switched reluctance motors (SRM) have a simple and robust structure, thus they
are generally suitable for high-speed applications. High-speed motors have the
advantage of high power density, which is an important issue of traction motors in
electric vehicles (EV). Therefore, high speed SRM seems to be promising
candidates for this application.

Switched Reluctance
Motor (SRM) is also known
as Variable Reluctance
Motor. This motor works
on the principle of variable
reluctance. This means,
the rotor always tries to
align along the lowest
reluctance path. As the
name suggests, a
switching inverter is
required for the operation
of Switched Reluctance
Motor.
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
Variable Reluctance Motor or Switched Reluctance Motor has two
different constructions: Singly Salient Construction and Doubly
Salient Construction. Stator and rotor magnetic circuits are
laminated to reduce the core losses in both type of SRM.
Singly Salient Construction:
A singly salient construction SRM comprises of a non-salient
stator and a salient two pole rotor. The rotor do not have any
winding wound over it but the stator have two phase winding. It
should be noted that, in actual SRM the number of phase
winding on stator may be more than two. Since the rotor is of
salient construction, the inductance of stator phase winding
varies with the rotor position. The inductance is minimum when
the rotor axis and stator phase winding axis coincides whereas it
is maximum when both the axis are in Quadrature.

Doubly Salient Construction:

Unlike singly salient type, the stator of doubly salient Switched

Reluctance Motor is of salient construction and consists of four
poles as shown in figure below. The rotor do not carry any
winding and is of salient construction but have two poles. Thus
this type of SRM is a hetropolar motor where the numbers of
stator and rotor poles are not same.
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
TYPES-
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
APPLICATIONS

Switched Reluctance Motors and Drives can provide an effective alternative to

induction motors in many situations where the operating conditions do not suit
them. The SRD is well suited to these situations, providing many advantages over
the conventional approaches.

Typical applications include:

1. Textile Machinery
2.Oilfield machinery

3.Presses

4. Mining machinery

5. Electric Vehicles
SPECIAL MACHINES
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
APPLICATIONS

6. Miscellaneous Applications

i. Machine tools: planers, vertical lathes, drilling machines

ii. General machinery: fans, pumps, compressors

iii. Food mixing machinery

iv. Lifting machines: lifts, winches, conveyors

v. Power generation equipment: wind turbine rotor blade load control

vi. Plastic manufacturing: extrusion machinery, injection molding machines

vii. Paper mill machinery

viii. Metal rolling mill

ix. Coil winding and unwinding machinery

SPECIAL MACHINES

Permanent Magnet Motors

A permanent magnet (PM) motor is an ac motor that uses magnets imbedded into
or attached to the surface of the motor’s rotor.

The magnetic field for a synchronous

machine may be provided by using
permanent magnets made of neodymium-
boron-iron, samarium-cobalt, or ferrite on
the rotor. In some motors, these magnets
are mounted with adhesive on the surface
of the rotor core such that the magnetic
field is radially directed across the air
gap. In other designs, the magnets are
inset into the rotor core surface or
inserted in slots just below the surface.
Another form of permanent-magnet motor
has circumferentially directed magnets
placed in radial slots that provide
magnetic flux to iron poles, which in turn
set up a radial field in the air gap.
SPECIAL MACHINES

Permanent Magnet Motors

The permanent magnet motor range extends the effective nominal speed range of
the rugged industry workhorses down to 100 – 850 r/min. The motors can
simplify drive systems by effectively eliminating the need of speed reduction
devices. They are designed exclusively for frequency converter supply, where
they provide high speed accuracy even without speed sensors because they are
synchronous motors without rotor slip.

Features

Torque range 1000 to 50 000 Nm

Construction based on standard induction motor design

Rotor magnetization by permanent magnets

Totally enclosed IP 55 construction

Air- or liquid cooled

 TOPIC:

 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Lecture:
2
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous
electric motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it
accomplishes electronically controlled commutation system (commutation is the
process of producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents
through it at appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system.
BLDC motors are also referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

Brushless Direct
Current (BLDC) motors
are one of the
motor types rapidly
gaining popularity.
BLDC motors
are used in industries
such as Appliances,
Automotive,
Aerospace, Consumer,
Medical, Industrial
Automation
Equipment and
Instrumentation.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor

As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation;
instead, they are electronically commutated.

BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction
motors. A few of these are:

Better speed versus torque characteristics

High dynamic response

High efficiency

Long operating life

Noiseless operation

Higher speed ranges

In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher,
making it useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the mechanical
contact with commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path between a DC
electric source and rotor armature windings, BLDC motor employs electrical
commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of coils. In
this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying conductors
are fixed.

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled

rectifiers at the correct rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space
Quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the force acting on the rotor causes it to
rotate. Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to sense the position
of the rotor and are positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the
sensor helps to determine when to switch the armature current.

This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and

brushes in a DC motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved.
Due to the absence of brushes BLDC motors are capable to run at high speeds. The
efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent, whereas as brushed type DC
motors are 75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC motors
available ranging from small power range to fractional horsepower, integral horsepower
and large power ranges.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE
BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field
generated by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the
same frequency. BLDC motors do not experience the “slip” that is normally seen in
induction motors.

BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations.

Corresponding to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-
phase motors are the most popular and widely used. This application note focuses on
3-phase motors.

Stator

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings
placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery. Most BLDC motors
have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings are
constructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils
are placed in the slots and they are interconnected to make a winding. Each of these
windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers of poles.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor

Rotor

The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole
pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles.

Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic
material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used
to make permanent magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy
magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but
they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In
contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and
enables the rotor to compress further for the same torque. Also, these alloy
magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the
same size motor using ferrite magnets.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
Advantages of Brushless DC Motor
The advantages of a BLDC motor are:

1. Brushless motors are more efficient as its velocity is determined by the

frequency at which current is supplied, not the voltage.
2. As brushes are absent, the mechanical energy loss due to friction is less which
enhanced efficiency.
3. BLDC motor can operate at high-speed under any condition.
4. There is no sparking and much less noise during operation.
5. More electromagnets could be used on the stator for more precise control.
6. BLDC motors accelerate and decelerate easily as they are having low rotor
inertia.
7. It is high performance motor that provides large torque per cubic inch over a
vast sped rang.
8. BLDC motors do not have brushes which make it more reliable, high life
expectancies, and maintenance free operation.
9. There is no ionizing sparks from the commutator, and electromagnetic
interference is also get reduced.
10. Such motors cooled by conduction and no air flow are required for inside
cooling.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
Disadvantages of Brushless DC Motors

1. These motors are costly

2. Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive

3. Not much availability of many integrated electronic control

solutions, especially for tiny BLDC motors

4. Requires complex drive circuitry

5. Need of additional sensors

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Brushless DC motor
Applications of Brushless DC Motors (BLDC)

Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) are used for a wide variety of application

requirements such as varying loads, constant loads and positioning
applications in the fields of industrial control, automotive, aviation,
automation systems, health care equipments, etc. Some specific applications of
BLDC motors are

1. Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players

2. Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles

3. Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems

4. Washing machines, compressors and dryers

5. Fans, pumps and blowers