CHAPTER 1

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS OR ALTERNATORS

1.1 Introduction

In an AC system voltage level can be increased or decreased (as per requirement) very easily with
the help of a transformer, therefore, this system is exclusively used for generation, transmission
and distribution of electric power. The mechanical power or energy is converted into electrical
power or energy with the help of an AC machine called alternator or synchronous generator.
However, when the same machine can be used to convert electrical power or energy into
mechanical power or energy, then it is known as a synchronous motor. Thus, the same machine
can be operated as a generator or as a motor and in general, it is called as a synchronous machine.
In fact, it is a machine which rotates only at synchronous speed (NS = 120 f/P) under all conditions.
To understand the construction, working and performance of the machine its study is divided into
number of main topics as chapters, to be followed.
In this chapter, the readers will go through various topics related to this machine when working
as a synchronous generator or alternator.

1.2 General Aspects of Synchronous Machines

A machine in which the following relation is maintained for its satisfactory operation is called a
synchronous machine (The machine may work as a generator or motor):
PN S
NS =
120 f or f = equation 1
p 120

Where: NS is the synchronous speed in rpm;

f is the supply frequency and

P is the number of poles of the machine.

When the machine is to work as a generator, it has to run at synchronous speed (NS) to generate
power at certain frequency (f), called power frequency. In India its value is 50 Hz, whereas in the
USA it is kept at 60 Hz.
When the machine works as a motor, it can rotate only at synchronous speed (NS) since the magnetic
poles are locked with the revolving field. If the machine fails to rotate at synchronous speed, it is
palled out of step and stops.
Hence, synchronous machine (generator or motor) is a machine which only runs at synchronous
speed and maintains the relation; NS = 120 x (f /P) rpm

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1.3 Basic Principles

A synchronous machine is just an electro-mechanical transducer which converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy or vice-versa. The fundamental phenomenon which make these conversions
possible are:

(i) Law of electromagnetic induction: This relates to the production of emf, i.e., emf is induced
in a conductor whenever it cuts across the magnetic field (see Fig. 1.1). This is called
Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.
(ii) Law of interaction: This law relates to the phenomenon of production of force. Or torque i.e.,
whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the
magnetic fields produced by the current carrying conductor and the main field, force is exerted
on the conductor and torque is developed (see Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.1 Generator principle Fig. 1.2 Motor principle

Generator action Motor action

Fig. 1.3 Generator action Fig. 1.4 Motor action

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1. In generator action, the rotation is due to 1. In motoring action, the rotation is due to
mechanical torque, therefore, Tm and ω are in the electro- magnetic torque, therefore, Te and ω
same direction. are in the same direction.
2. The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite direction 2. The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite
to rotation ω. direction to rotation ω.
3. Electromagnetic torque Te acts in opposite direction 3. Mechanical torque Tm acts in opposite direction
to mechanical torque Tm so that Tm = Te + Tf. to electromagnetic torque Te so that ωTe = ωTm
4. In generator action, an emf is induced in the + ωTf.
armature conductors which circulates current in 4. In motoring action, current is impressed to
the armature when load is connected to it. Hence, e the armature against the induced emf (e),
and i both are in the same direction. therefore current flows in opposite
5. In generator action, E > V direction to that of induced emf.
6. In generator action, the torque angle ω is leading. 5. In motor action, E < V
7. In generator action, mechanical energy is converted 6. In motoring action, the torque angle ω is
into electrical energy. lagging.
7. In motoring action, electrical energy is
converted into mechanical energy.

1.4 Generator and Motor Action

In generator action, an emf is induced in the armature conductors when they cut across the magnetic
field. On closing the circuit, current flows through the armature conductors which produces another
field. By the interaction of this field and main field a force is exerted on the conductor which acts
is opposite direction to that of rotation. It is this force against which the relative motion of
conductors has to be maintained by the mechanical power supplied by the prime-mover, thus the
mechanical power is converted into electrical power.

In motor action, a current is supplied to the machine which flows through the armature conductors.
The armature conductors produce a field which interacts with the main field. Thus, a force is exerted
on the conductors and rotation takes place (i.e., torque is developed). Once rotation occurs, an emf
is induced in the conductors due to relative motion. This emf acts in opposite direction to the flow
of current. The flow of current has to be maintained against this emf by applying external voltage
source thus electrical power is converted into mechanical power.

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1.5 Production of Sinusoidal Alternating emf

When a conductor or coil cuts across the magnetic field an emf is induced in it by the phenomenon
called electromagnetic induction. This can be achieved either by rotating a coil in the stationary
magnetic field or by keeping the coil stationary and rotating the magnetic field. (The magnetic field
can be rotated by placing the field winding on the rotating part of the machine).
For illustration see Figs. 1.5(a) and (b), two positions of a coil rotating in a stationary magnetic field
are shown. Whereas, in Figs. 1.5(c) and (d), two positions of a rotating electro-magnet in a coil placed
on stationary armature are shown. At first instant, the emf induced in the coil is zero since flux cut
by the coil is zero. However, at second instant, the emf induced in the coil is maximum (say positive).
The two instants t1 and t2 are marked on the wave diagram shown in Fig. 1.5(e). In one revolution
the induced emf completes one cycle and its wave shape is shown in fig. 1.5 (e)

Fig. 1.5 (a to d) Generation of alternating emf, (e) Wave shape of alternating emf

1.6 Relation between Frequency, Speed and Number of Poles

In Fig. 1.6, a machine is shown having P number of poles on the rotor revolving at a speed at Ns
rpm. When a conductor passes through a pair of poles one cycle of emf is induced in it.

Fig. 1.6 One cycle is produced when a coil passes through a pair of poles

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1.7 Advantages of Rotating Field System over Stationary Field System

Only in small synchronous machines the field system is placed on stator and armature winding on
rotor, but in larger machines, the field winding is placed on the rotor and armature winding is placed
on the stator. The rotating field and stationary armature system is preferred over stationary field
and rotating armature system. Following are the important advantages of rotating field system
over stationary field system:

(i) The armature winding is more complex than the field winding. Therefore, it is easy to
place armature winding on stationary structure.
(ii) In the modern alternators (synchronous generators), high voltage is generated, therefore,
heavy insulation is provided and it is easy to insulate the high voltage winding when it is
placed on stationary structure.
(iii) The size of the armature conductors is much more to carry heavy current, therefore, high
centrifugal stresses are developed. Thus, it is preferred to place them on stationary
structure.
(iv) The size of slip rings depends upon the magnitude of flow of current, therefore, it is easy
to deliver small current for excitation, through slip rings of smaller size when rotating field
system is used.
(v) It is easier to build and properly balance high speed rotors when they carry the lighter field
system.
(vi) The weight of rotor is small when field system is provided on rotor and as such friction
losses are produced.
(vii) Better cooling system can be provided when the armature is kept stationary.

1.8 Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines

The important parts of a synchronous machine are given below:

1. Stator 2. Rotor 3. Miscellaneous
1. Stator: The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator; it has the following important
parts:

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 (i) Stator frame: It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it protects the inner
parts of the machine. It can be also made of any other strong material since it is not to
carry the magnetic field. Cast iron is used only because of its high mechanical strength.
(ii) Stator Core: The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from number of
stamping which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for
the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator winding.
(iii) Stator Winding: Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which three-phase
or one-phase winding is placed. Enamelled copper is used as winding material.

2. Rotor: The rotating part of the machine is called rotor. From construction point of view, there
are two types of rotors named as:
(i) Salient pole type rotor; (ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.
(i) Salient pole type rotor: In this case, projected poles are provided on the rotor. The cost
of construction of salient pole type rotors is low, moreover sufficient space is available
to accommodate field winding but these cannot bear high mechanical stresses at high
speeds. Therefore, salient pole type construction is suited for medium and low speeds and are
usually employed at hydro-electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators. Since the
speed of these machines (generators) is quite low, to obtain the required frequency, the machines
have large number of poles as shown in Figs. 1.7 and 1.8. To accommodate
such a large number of poles, these machines have larger diameter and small length.

Fig. 1.7 Salient pole type alternator.

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For a speed of 200 rpm (alternators coupled with water turbines) the diameter of the
machines is as large as 14 metre and length is only 1 metre. The salient pole type rotor
has the following important parts:

Fig. 1.8 Parts of rotor of salient pole alternator

(a) Spider: Spider is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. It is keyed
to the shaft and at the outer surface, pole core and pole-shoe are keyed to it [see Fig.
1.9(a)].
(b) Pole core and pole shoe: It is made of laminated sheet material [see Figs. 1.8 (b) and 1.9(b)].
Pole core provides least reluctance path for the magnetic field and pole shoe distributes the
field over the whole periphery uniformly to produce sinusoidal wave form of the generated
emf.

Fig. 1.9 (a) Spider Fig. 1.9 (b) Pole core pole shoe

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(c) Field winding or Exciting winding: Field winding [see Fig. 1.8 (c)] is wound on the
former and then placed around the pole core. DC supply is given to it through slip rings.
When direct current flows through the field winding, it produces the required magnetic
field.
(d) Damper winding: At the outermost periphery, holes are provided [see Fig. 1.9 (b)] in
which copper bars are inserted and short-circuited at both the sides by rings forming
damper winding.
Generally, the segments on individual poles are joined together to form common rings
resulting in a short-circuited squirrel cage winding similar to that used in induction machines
with squirrel cage rotors. Salient pole machines are frequently provided with a damper winding
on the rotor to damp rotor oscillations during transient-conditions and to facilitate smooth
operation under unbalanced load conditions.

At hydro-electric power plants, usually, salient pole type alternators are placed with their shafts in
vertical position, as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Salient pole type alternator mounted vertically at hydro-electric power plant (half-
sectional view)

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(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor: A non-salient pole alternator is shown in Fig. 1.11. In this case,
there are no projected poles but the poles are formed by the current flowing through the
rotor (exciting) winding. Non-salient pole type construction is suited for the high speeds. The
steam turbines rotate at a high speed (3000 rpm). When these turbines are used as
prime-mover for this machine working as a generator, a small number of poles are
required for given frequency. Hence, these machines have smaller diameter and larger
length. Non salient pole type rotors have the following parts:
(a) Rotor core: Rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is keyed to the shaft. At the
outer periphery slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed. It provides an easy path to
the magnetic flux.
(b) Rotor winding or Exciting winding: It is placed in rotor slots and current is passed
through the winding in such a way that poles are formed according to the requirement (see
Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.11 Non-salient pole type alternator Fig. 1.12 Non-salient pole type rotor

3. Miscellaneous Parts: The following are few important miscellaneous parts;

(i) Brushes: Brushes are made of carbon and these just slip over the slip rings. DC supply is
given to the brushes. From brushes current flows to the slip rings and then to the exciting
winding.
(ii) Bearings: Bearings are provided between the shaft and outer stationary body to reduce the
friction. The material used for their construction is high carbon steel.
(iii) Shaft: Shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine
through shaft.

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Some Special Features of Salient and Non-salient Structures

Usually the salient pole field structure has the following special features:
(i) These are of larger diameter and shorter length.
(ii) Usually, 2/3rd of the pole pitch is covered by the pole shoes
(iii) To reduce eddy current losses, the poles are laminated.
(iv) The machine having such structure are employed with hydraulic turbines or with diesel
engines which are usually operated at low speeds (100 to 375 rpm)
The non-salient field structure has the following special features.
(i) They are of smaller diameter and of very long axial length.
(ii) Robust construction and noiseless operation.
(iii) Less windage (air-resistance) loss.
(iv) Better in dynamic balancing.
(v) High operating speed (3000 rpm).
(vi) Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery, and therefore, gives a better emf
waveform than that obtainable with salient poles field structure.
(vii) There is no need of providing damper windings (except in special cases to assist in
synchronising) because the solid field poles themselves act as efficient dampers.

Air-gap and its Significance

A very small air-gap increases the stray-load loss and synchronous reactance Xd. A large air-gap
needs larger excitation current. Therefore, a compromise has to be made. Generally the ratio of
air-gap to the pole pitch is between 0.008 and 0.02.

1.9 Excitation Systems

Since the field winding is on rotor, a special arrangement is necessary to connect DC source to the
field. In small size synchronous machines, generally the field winding is excited from a separate
DC source through sliprings and brushes. Sliprings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft
of the machine, but insulated from it. A brush rides and slips over each slipring. The positive end
of a DC voltage source is connected to one brush and negative end is connected to another brush.
In large machines, various schemes are employed to supply DC excitation to the field winding.
Some of the most important excitation systems are given below:

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1.9.1 DC Exciters

This is a conventional method of exciting the field windings of synchronous generators. In this
method, three machines namely pilot exciter, main exciter and the main 3-phase alternator are
mechanically coupled and are therefore, driven by the same shaft. The pilot exciter is a DC shunt
generator feeding the field winding of a main exciter. The main exciter is a separately-excited DC
generator which provides the necessary current to the field winding of the main alternator through
brushes and slip rings as shown in Fig. 1.13.

This conventional method of excitation suffers from cooling and maintenance problems
associated with slip rings, brushes and commutator with the higher rating alternators. The modern
excitation systems have been developed by eliminating the sliding contacts and brushes. This has
led to develop static and brushless-excitation systems.

Fig. 1.13 Circuit diagram of DC exciter

1.9.2 Static Excitation System

In this method, the excitation power for the main alternator field is drawn from output terminals of
the main 3-phase alternator itself. For this purpose, a three-phase transformer T1 steps down the
alternator voltage to the desired value. This three-phase voltage is fed to a three-phase full wave
bridge rectifier using thyristors. The firing angle of these thyristors is controlled by means of a
regulator which picks up the signal from alternator terminals through potential transformer PT and
current transformer CT as shown in Fig. 1.14. The controlled DC power output from thyristor unit
is delivered to the field winding of main alternator through brushes and slip rings as shown in Fig.
1.14.

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 Fig. 1.14 Circuit diagram of a static exciter

While initiating the process of static excitation, first of all, field winding is switched on to the
battery bank to establish field current in the alternator. The alternator speed is adjusted to rated
speed. When the output voltage from alternator is built up sufficiently, the alternator field windings
is disconnected from battery bank and is switched on to the thyristor bridge output. Sufficient
protection devices are installed in the static excitation scheme for any possible fault in the excitation
system. The advantages of static excitation are as follows:

1. Its response time is very small about 20 m sec.

2. It eliminates the exciter windage loss and commutator, bearing and winding maintenance.
3. As the excitation energy is taken from alternator terminals itself, the excitation voltage is
directly proportional to alternator’s speed. This improves the overall system performance.

1.9.3 Brushless Excitation System

Figure 1.15 shows a simplified diagram of a brushless excitation system. The excitation system
consists of an alternator rectifier main exciter and a pilot exciter (permanent magnet generator
PMG). Both the main exciter and pilot exciter are driven directly from the main shaft. The main
exciter has a stationary field and a rotating armature, which is directly connected, through silicon
rectifiers S1, to the main alternator field. Thus the sliprings and brushes are eliminated. The main
exciter’s field is fed from a shaft driven PMG, having rotating permanent magnets attached to the
shaft and a stationary 3-phase armature. The AC output of PMG is rectified by three-phase full-
wave phase controlled thyristor bridges. The thyristor assembly is usually housed in removable

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drawers, which can be taken out easily for repair. The thyristor bridges are controlled by a set of
dual firing circuits operating in parallel.

Fig. 1.15 Brushless excitation system for synchronous generator

The base excitation is controlled by an input setting to the thyristor gating circuits. This control
signal is derived from the PMG via a regulated DC supply, which also serves the regulator logic
circuitry. The regulator controls excitation by supplying a buck-boost control signal, which adds
algebraically to the base setting. The regulator elements also comprise of solid state circuits.
This excitation system has a short time constant and a response time of less than 0.1 second.

1.10 Armature Winding

In the large synchronous machines, stationary part is the armature. On the inner periphery of the
stator core, number of slots (mostly open parallel sided slots) are provided. In these slots armature
winding is placed.
1.11 Types of Armature Winding
Various types of winding schemes can be adopted to wound the armature of an alternator, a few of
them are given below:
1. Single-phase and poly-phase windings: When only one winding is placed on the armature
and only one emf is obtained at the output, winding is called single-phase winding.
When more than one windings are placed on the armature and emfs induced are more than one,
displaced from each other by some angle, the winding is called poly-phase winding. Mostly
three-phase winding is provided on the armature.
2. Concentrated and distributed windings: When one slot per pole or slots equal to the number

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of poles are employed, the windings thus obtained are called concentrated windings. Such windings
give maximum induced emfs for given number of conductors but the wave form of
induced emf is not exactly sinusoidal. When number of slots per poles are more than one, the
windings thus obtained are called distributed windings. Such windings give slightly less than
maximum induced emf for a given number of conductors but the wave form of induced emf is more
sinusoidal.
3. Single layer and double layer windings: When only one coil side is placed in a slot, the winding
is called single layer winding. However, when two coil sides are placed in one slot, one over the
other, the winding is called double layer winding.
4. Full pitched and short pitched windings: When the two coil sides of the same coil are 180
electrical degrees apart, the winding is called full pitch winding. When the two sides of the
same coil are less than 180 electrical degrees apart, the winding is called short pitch winding.
The emf induced in each coil is maximum with full pitch winding scheme is employed whereas emf
induced in the short pitch winding is less than that. However, short pitch winding is preferred over
full pitch winding because of the following reasons:
(i) It decreases the length at the end-connections and thus amount of copper required is saved.
(ii) It reduces the slot reactance and thus improves the wave shape of the generated emf, i.e., the
generated emf can be made to approximately sinusoidal more easily by properly chording the
winding.
(iii) It reduces or eliminates distorting harmonics in the wave form of generated emf.
The only disadvantage of short pitch winding is that a few more turns are used to obtain the same
voltage as it would be induced in full pitch winding.

5. Concentric (or spiral), Lap and Wave windings: When each group of coils under a pole is
arranged into a sort of concentric shape i.e., when the current flow is traced through one such
properly connected set of coils that the conductors seem to form a spiral around a portion of
the core (see Fig. 1.16) the winding is called concentric or chain or spiral winding. This type
of winding scheme is preferred for large diameter, low speed synchronous machines.

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 Fig. 1.16 Concentric winding

In the alternators, the lap and wave windings give the same emf as long as the other conditions
are the same. In case of lap winding as shown in Fig. 1.17, coils or coil sides overlap the other
consecutively and connections are made. Whereas in wave winding, as shown in Fig. 1.18 the
coils are always forward connected. The connections of a lap winding are simpler to that of the
wave winding, therefore lap winding is exclusively used.

Fig. 1.17 Lap winding

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 Fig. 1.18 Wave winding

1.12 Important Terms Used in Armature Winding

Some of the important terms used in the armature winding are given below:
(i) Electrical angle: When a conductor passes through a pair of poles, one cycle of emf is
inducedin it. Thus a pair of poles represents an angle of 360 electrical degrees. There is a
perfect relation between electrical and mechanical angle.
Electrical angle = Mechanical angle × Pair of poles.
(ii) Pole pitch: Distance between two neutral axis (or similar points) of adjacent poles is called
poles pitch. The pole pitch can be expressed as number of slots per poles or electrical
degrees (i.e., 180° elect.), refer to Fig. 1.20. If S is the number of slots on the whole
periphery of armature and P is the number of poles, Then,
Pole pitch = No. of slots per pole = S/P.
(iii) Coil: Two conductors placed in the two slots displaced by pole pitch (in full pitch winding)
or less than pole pitch (in short pitch winding), connected at one side by the end connections
form a single turn coil as shown in Fig. 1.19(a). When number of turns are connected in series
and each side (coil side) is placed in the slot, it is called a multi-turn coil as shown in Figs.
1.19(b) and (c). The multi-turn coil is shown in Fig. 1.19(d) by a single line diagram.

Fig. 1.19 Single and multi-turn coils

(iv) Coil pitch or coil span: The distance between two active sides of a coil is called coil span.
It is expressed in terms of number of slots or electrical degrees. Refer to Fig. 1.20.

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 Fig. 1.20 Distributed winding

(v) Slot pitch: The distance between centre points (or similar points) of two consecutive slots
or teeth is called slot pitch. It is expressed in electrical degrees. Refer to Fig. 1.20.

(vi) Phase spread: The angle or space of pole face over which coil sides of the same phase are
spread is called phase spread, as shown in Fig. 1.20. In a distributed winding, theconductors
of one phase under one pole are spread in number of slots so that each phase has equal
distribution. In a three phase winding:

1.13 Coil Span Factor

In a full pitch winding the coil span or coil pitch is always equal to the pole pitch which is equal to
180 electrical degrees. When the coil span is less than 180 electrical degrees, the winding is called
short pitched or fractional pitch or chorded winding as shown in Fig. 1.26.

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 Fig. 1.26 Short pitched winding Fig. 1.27 Phasor diagram

Let ‘e’ be the induced emf in each of the two sides of the same coil. For a full pitch winding the
emf induced in two sides of the coil i.e., OA and AB are 180 electrical degrees apart as shown in
Fig. 1.27. However, when the winding is short pitched by an angle β electrical degrees, the emf
induced in the two sides of the coil are OA and AC, i.e., (180 – β) electrical degrees apart of shown
in Fig. 1.27.

For a full pitch winding,

Total induced emf in the coil = OA + AB = e + e = 2e

For a short pitch winding,

Total, induced emf in the coil = OC = OD + DC
= OA cos 𝛽/2 + AC cos 𝛽/2 (where AD is ꓕ on OC)
= e cos 𝛽 /2 + e cos 𝛽 /2
= 2 e cos 𝛽 /2

The ratio of induced emf in a coil when the winding is short pitched to the induced emf in the
same coil when it is full pitched is called a coil span factor or pitch factor or chorded factor and
it is generally denoted be Kc. It is always less than unity.

1.14 Distribution Factor

In a concentrated winding, all the conductors of any one phase, which lie under a single pole, are
placed in a single slot. When the conductors of one phase, which lie under a single pole, are placed
in several slots, the winding is called distributed winding. A distributed winding is shown in Fig.

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1.28 in which there are 12 slots per pole for a three-phase winding or four slots per pole per phase.
In a distributed winding, the number of coils representing each phase are connected in series and
is called a coil group.

Fig. 1.28 Distributed winding

The emfs induced in the conductors lying in two adjacent slots is similar in wave shape and
magnitude but there is a phase difference between them. This phase difference is equal to the
angular displacement between two adjacent slots, i.e., slot pitch. For the winding scheme
considered here,

Let there be m coils connected in series in a coil group placed in adjacent slots and α be the angle
between two adjacent slots in electrical degrees. The emfs induced in the coil group are shown
vectorially in Fig. 1.29.

AB = BC = CD = DE
= emf induced in each coil side.
AE = Vector sum of emfs of m coils.

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 Fig. 1.29 Phasor diagram

A, B, C, D and E are the points laying on the circle of radius r having centre at point ‘O’. Drop a
perpendicular on AB at F and on AE at G from point ‘O’.

Total induced emf in the coil group when the winding is distributed in number of slots to the
induced emf in the coil group when the winding is concentrated in one slot is called a distribution
factor or breadth factor and it is generally denoted by Kd. It is always less than unity.

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1.15 Winding Factor
The combined effect of coil span factor and distribution factor is known as winding factor. In fact,
winding factor is the product of coil span factor and distribution factor.

Kw = Kc× Kd

1.16 Generation of Three-phase emf

In a three-phase system, there are equal voltages (or emfs) of the same frequency having a phase
difference of 120°. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having three
identical windings (or phases) fixed on the some spindle and displaced by 120° electrical. When
these windings are rotated in a stationary magnetic field as shown in Fig. 1.30(a) or when these
windings are kept stationary and the magnetic field is rotated [see Fig. 1.30(b)], an emf is induced
in each winding or phase. These emfs are of same magnetic and frequency but are displaced from
one another by 120° electrical.

Consider three identical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1c2 mounted on the rotor as shown in Fig. 1.30 (a)
or placed on the stationary armature as shown in Fig. 1.30 (b). Here, a1, b1 and c1 are the start
terminals, whereas, a2, b2 and c2 are finish terminals of three coils. It may be noted that a phase
difference of 120° electrical is maintained between the corresponding start terminals a1, b1 and c1.
Let the three coils mounted on the same axis be rotated (or the magnetic field system be rotated
keeping coils stationary) is anti-clockwise direction at ω radians/second, as shown in Fig. 1.30(a)
and (b) respectively. Three emfs are induced in the three coils respectively. Their magnitude and
direction, at this instant are given below:

(i) The emf induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by
wave a1 a2 in Fig. 1.30(c).
(ii) The coil b1 b2 is 120° (electrical) behind the coil a1 a2 the emf induced in this coil is
negative and is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave b1 b2 in Fig. 1.30(c).
(iii) The coil c1c2 is 120° (electrical) behind b1 b2 or 240° (electrical) behind a1 a2 the emf
induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing as shown by wave c1 c2 in Fig. 1.30(c).

Phasor diagram: The emfs induced in three coils are of the same magnitude and frequency but are
displaced by 120° (electrical) from each other as shown in phasor diagram [see Fig. 1.30(d)]. These
can be represented by the equations:

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 Fig. 1.30 Generation of three-phase emfs

1.17 emf Equation

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1.18 Wave Shape
The flux distribution in the air-gap of an alternator is not well distributed. Moreover, if the winding
is concentrated and full-pitched, the wave shape of the induced emf is not sinusoidal.
The wave shape can be made sinusoidal by proper designing of salient pole shoes and using short-
pitch and distributed winding.

1.19 Harmonics in Voltage Wave Form

The harmonics in the output voltage wave form are developed due to non-sinusoidal wave form of
the field flux. These are also developed due to variation in the reluctance of the air-gap because of
slotting of stator core.

Suppression of Harmonics

Harmonics can be suppressed or eliminated by various methods as mentioned below:

(i) by well distributing the armature winding.
(ii) by using short-pitched winding.
(iii) by skewing the poles by one slot-pitch.
(iv) by using fractional slot winding.
(v) by using slightly larger air-gap length to increase the reluctance.

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1.20 Production of Revolving Field
A resultant magnetic field having constant magnitude and fixed polarity changes its position
continuously in space is called a revolving field.

For simplicity, consider the stator of a two-pole synchronous machine or of an induction motor
having three-phase winding represented by the concentric coils a-a՛, b-b՛ and c-c՛ respectively as
shown in Fig. 1.32 (a).

Let 3-phase currents having wave diagram as shown in Fig. 1.31(a) flows through the stator
winding. Current of phase-1 flows through coil a-a՛, current of phase-2 flows through coil b-b՛ and
current of phase-3 flows through coil c-c՛ respectively. When three-phase currents flow through the
three-phase winding, they produce their own magnetic fields ϕ1, ϕ2 and ϕ3. The phasor diagram of
the fields is shown in Fig. 1.31(b). The positive half cycle of the alternating current is considered
as inward flow of current [cross in a circle ] and negative half cycle as outward flow of current
[dot in a circle ]. It is marked in the start terminals (a, b and c) of the three coils. The direction of
flow of current is opposite in the finish terminals of the same coil.

Fig. 1.31 Three-phase emfs

At an instant t1 when θ = 0, the flow of current in the start terminals of the three coils, a, b and
c is zero, negative and positive (i.e., zero, outward and inward) respectively whereas, in the finish
terminals it is opposite to that of the start terminals as shown in Fig. 1.32(a). The resultant field
produced by the stator winding and its direction Fm is shown in Fig. 1.32(a).

24
 Fig. 1.32 Position of resultant field at instant ‘t1’

At this instant angle θ is zero, therefore,

At another instant t2, where θ = 90°, the direction of flow of current in coil-side a is inward and
in b and c is outward. Whereas, the flow of current in the other sides of the coils is opposite, i.e.,
in ac it is outward and in b՛ and c՛ it is inward as shown in Fig. 1.33(a). The resultant field and its
direction Fm at this instant is shown in Fig. 1.33(a). The resultant field is rotated in anti-clockwise
direction (i.e., the direction in which the supply sequence is applied to the winding, here the supply
1, 2, 3 is given to the coils a, b and c respectively) through an angle ϕ = 90° from its previous
position.

25
 Fig. 1.33 Position of resultant field at instant ‘t2’

The three fields, ϕ1, ϕ2 and ϕ3 are shown vectorially in Fig. 1.33(b). Fields ϕ2 and ϕ3 are shown in
opposite direction each having a magnitude of 0·5 ϕm. The resultant field ϕR is the vector sum of
ϕ1, ϕ2 and ϕ3. Resolving the fields along the axis of field ϕ1.

At some other instant t3 where θ = 270° the direction of flow of current in start terminals of the
three coils a, b and c is outward, inward and inward respectively, whereas in the finish terminals it
is opposite to that of the start terminals as shown in Fig. 1.34(a). The resultant field and its direction
Fm at this instant is shown in Fig. 1.34(a). The resultant field is rotated in anti-clockwise direction
through an angle θ = 270° from its first position.

26
 Fig. 1.34 Position of resultant field at instant ‘t3’

At this instant, angle θ is 270°, therefore,

The three fields, ϕ1, ϕ2 and ϕ3 are shown vectorially in Fig. 1.34(b). Field ϕ1 is shown in opposite
direction. The resultant field IR is the vector sum of ϕ1, ϕ2 and ϕ3. Resolving the fields along the
axis of field ϕ1.

Hence, in one cycle the resultant field rotates through one revolution. It may also be seen that when
supply from three phases 1, 2 and 3 is given to coils a-a՛, b-b՛ and c-c՛ respectively, an anticlockwise
rotating field is produced. If supply to the coils a – a՛, b – b՛ and c – c՛ is given from phase 1, 3 and
2 respectively, the direction of rotation of the resultant field is reversed.

Thus, to reverse the direction of rotation of rotating magnetic field, the connections of any two
supply terminals are interchanged.

Conclusion

Hence, it is concluded that when a three-phase supply is given to a three-phase wound stator of an
induction motor or synchronous motor, resultant field Fm of magnitude 1·5 ϕm is produced which

27
rotates in space at a constant speed called synchronous speed (N S = 120 f /P). The direction of
rotation of the resultant field depends upon the sequence in which supply in given to the stator
winding

1.21 Ferrari’s Principle (Vector Representation of Alternating Field)

An alternating field can be represented by two vectors revolving in opposite directions at constant
speed of Z radians per second. It can be well explained with the help of Ferrari’s principle.

Ferrari’s principle states that a single alternating magnetic field is the resultant of two fields, each
of half the magnitude of alternating field, rotating in opposite direction at fixed speed, called
synchronous speed.

Consider a field ϕm having two components 1 and 2 each of magnitude ϕm/2, which are rotating in
oppose direction at a constant angular speed of ω radians/sec.

Fig. 1.35 Two-vectors revolving in opposite direction and its wave diagram

Let at start, the two components are vertically upwards i.e., along the vertical axis and the
resultant field is +ϕm. When ω = 90°, the resultant field is zero as shown in Fig. 6.35(ii), whereas
when ϕ =180° the resultant field is –ϕm and so on.

To determine the value of resultant field at any instant (say after t seconds), the two components
make an angle ϕ = ωt with the reference (vertical) axis.

Then, the resultant field at that instant,

28
 which is an alternating field.

Hence, an alternating field can be represented by two components of field having half the
magnitude rotating in opposite direction at a constant speed, called synchronous speed.

According to Ferrari’s Principle, an alternating field produced by each phase (coil) can be
represented by two components of field each having half the magnitude rotating in opposite
direction at a constant speed, called synchronous speed.

Fig. 1.36 Position of the components of the fields at various instants

Considering a coil a-a՛ having an axis OA. When an alternating supply is given to the coil, an
alternating field (ϕ) is produced by the coil as shown in Fig. 1.36(a). At an instant t1, the two
components of the field 1 and 2 each of magnitude ϕm/2 rotating in opposite direction are
represented along the axis of the coil as shown in Fig. 1.36(b). At an instant t2, the two components
of the field are rotated through 90° and their position is shown in Fig. 1.36(c). Similarly at an instant
t3 the position of the two components is shown in Fig. 1.36(d).

1.22 Production of Two-phase Rotating Magnetic Field

Considering two coils a-a՛ and b-b՛ having axis OA and OB respectively displaced from each other
by 90° as shown in Fig. 1.37(b). When two-phase AC supply is given to these coils, each one of
them produces alternating field (flux) as shown in Fig. 1.37(a). Considering an instant t1, flux
produced by coil a-a՛ is +  m , therefore the component 1 and 2 each of value  m /2 are along the

axis of coil a-a՛ i.e., OA, as shown in Fig. 1.37(b).

29
The flux produced by the coil b –b՛ is zero at this instant and will become +  m after a rotation of

90°. Accordingly the position of component 3 and 4 each equal to  m /2 is shown in Fig. 1.37(b).

At this instant, the component 2 and 4 are equal and opposite and rotating in opposite direction,
thus neutralising each other. The resultant component is the sum of 1 and 3 equal  m rotating in

anticlockwise direction i.e., the direction of the supply sequence. Thus, it is concluded that when
2-phase supply is applied (or current flows) to a 2-phase wound stator, resultant field of magnitude
m is set-up which rotates in space at a synchronous speed in the direction of supply sequence.

Fig. 1.37 Position of the components of the fields at instant t1

1.23 Production of Three-phase Rotating Magnetic Field

Considering three coils a – a՛, b – b՛ and c – c՛ having axis OA, OB and OC respectively as shown
in Fig. 1.38(b). When three phase supply is given to these three coils, each of them produces
alternating field (flux) as shown in Fig. 1.38(a). Considering an instant t1, flux produced by coil a
– a՛ is + ϕm, therefore the components 1 and 2 each of value  m /2 are long the axis of coil a–a՛ i.e.,

OA.

30
 Fig. 1.38 Resultant magnetic field

The flux produced by coil b – 𝑏՛ will become positive maximum (+𝜙𝑚 ) after an angular rotation of
120 electrical degrees. Therefore, one of the components (3) of the field produced by this coil,
rotating in anticlockwise direction, at this instant is along the axis of a – a՛ i.e., OA. Whereas, the
other component (4), rotating in clockwise direction is along the axis of coil c – c՛ i.e., OC. The
flux produced by the coil c – c՛ will become positive maximum (+𝜙𝑚 ) after an angular rotation of
240 electrical degrees. Therefore, one of the components (5), rotating in anticlockwise direction, at
this instant is along the axis of coil a – a՛ i.e., OA. Whereas, the other component (6), rotating in
clockwise direction is along the axis of coil b – b՛ i.e., OB. The resultant of the three components
2, 4 and 6, which are rotating in clockwise direction and displaced by an angle of 120 electrical
degrees is zero. The resultant of the remaining three components. 1, 3 and 5 is 1.5 𝜙𝑚 which is
rotating in anticlockwise direction. It is the direction in which the supply is given to the three phases
(coils) of the machine.

Conclusion

Hence, it is concluded that when a three-phase supply is given to the stator of a three-phase wound
machine, a resultant field of magnitude 1.5 𝜙𝑚 is produced which rotates in space at a constant
speed, called synchronous speed. The direction of rotating of the resultant field depends upon the
sequence in which supply is given to the three phases (or coils).

1.24 Rating of Alternators

The rating of all the power apparatus whether mechanical (steam or IC engines) or electrical
(electrical machines) depends upon the power which they can handle safely and efficiently under
some specific conditions. Electrical machines or apparatus are usually rated as per the load they
can carry without overheating and damaging the insulation. The rating of electrical machines is
governed by the temperature rise caused by the internal losses of the machine. The copper loss
(𝐼2 R), in the armature depends upon the magnitude of current passing through the armature
conductors and core loss depends upon the operating voltage. Both these losses are independent of
the power factor.

The power in kW is proportional to the power factor of the load which may be different for different
loads. For instant, let the rating of an alternator be 1000 kVA, at full-load it will be in position to

31
deliver 400, 600, 800 and 1000 kW at power factor 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 respectively. At these
loads, current supplied by the alternator will be the same and the losses will also remain the same.

The above explanation clearly shows that the rating of an alternator depends upon, the maximum
current it can deliver without overheating and the voltage for which it is designed. The pf of the
load is not considered to give its rating.

Hence, alternators are rated in kVA and not in kW.

The electrical machines and apparatus which themselves work as a load like induction motors,
ovens, heaters, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc., are rated in kW. But the machines which are
supplying or transferring electric power like alternators, transformers etc., are rated kVA.

1.25 Armature Resistance

The resistance per phase is armature resistance of an alternator. The resistance of a winding,
𝑙
depending upon resistivity of winding material, length and area of cross-section [𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑎] is called

DC resistance of the winding. The actual or AC resistance in nearly 1·25 to 1·75 times the DC
resistance.

This is because of unequal distribution of alternating current (Skin effect) over the cross-section of
the conductor. Voltage drop (IR) occurs in the winding because of this resistance which is in-phase
with the current phasor. However, the value of this resistance is very small as compared to
synchronous. reactance of the machine, which is why, many times, its voltage drop effect is
neglected. Heavy copper losses occur in the machine because of armature resistance.

1.26 Armature Leakage Reactance

When current flows through the armature conductors, local fluxes are set at various places. The
flux which links with the armature winding but not with rotor field winding is called leakage
flux. The leakage flux may be divided into the following three components:

(i) Slot leakage flux: The flux which links or surrounds the armature conductors
embedded in the iron or placed in the slots but does not passes through the air gap is
called the slots leakage flux as shown in Fig. 1.39.
(ii) Air gap leakage flux: The flux which surrounds the armature conductors and passes
through the air gap (i.e., the flux which crosses from tooth to tooth in the air gap) as
shown in Fig. 1.39 is called air gap leakage flux.

32
 (iii) End-connection leakage flux: The flux which links with only the end-connections of
the armature winding is called end-connection leakage flux. It is also called as an over
hang leakage flux.

Fig. 1.39 Leakage Fluxes

The total leakage flux which links with the armature winding (conductors) gives rise to
inductance. The magnitude of the inductance is given as

where 𝜙 is the leakage flux in weber, N is the number of turns and I is the armature current. This
inductance L, when multiplied by Z gives the leakage reactance 𝑋𝐿 . Hence,

A voltage drop (I𝑋𝐿 ) occurs in the winding because of this reactance. This voltage drop is in
quadrature to the current vector.

According,

1.27 Armature Reaction

At no-load, the only field (mmf) acting in the synchronous machine (alternator) is the main field
‘𝐹𝑚 ’ produced by the exciting winding. When load is connected to the alternator, current flows
through the armature conductors and produces a field (mmf) called armature field 𝐹𝑎 . This field
affects the main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 .

33
Thus, the effect of the armature field on the main magnetic field is known as armature reaction.
The current flowing through the armature conductors depends upon the power factor of the load.
Therefore, the armature reaction will be studied at three extreme conditions of the p.f., i.e., unity,
zero lagging and zero leading.

At Unity Power Factor

Consider a two pole alternator with the poles rotating in anticlockwise direction. The three phases
are represented by concentric coils a-a’, b-b’ and c-c’ which are displaced by 120° electrical from
each other. Where a, b and c are the start terminals and a’, b’ and c’ are the finish terminals.
At an instant 𝑡1 , depending upon the position of the poles, direction of induced emfs in three coils
is shown in Fig. 1.40(a) and their wave diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.40(c) (i.e., 𝑣𝑎𝑎′ , 𝑣𝑏𝑏′ and 𝑣𝑐𝑐′) .

Fig. 1.40 Armature reaction at unity of power factor

The position of the main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 produced by the exciting field coils is shown in Fig.
1.40(a) as well as Fig. 1.40 (b). When a load of unity power factor is connected to the alternator,
current flows through the coils which is in phase with the induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.40(b) and
their wave diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.40 (c) (i.e., 𝑖𝑎𝑎′ 𝑖𝑏𝑏′ and 𝑖𝑐𝑐′ ). A resultant armature field 𝐹𝑚
is produced by the current carrying armature conductors of magnitude 1·5 𝜙𝑚 (where 𝜙𝑚 is the
maximum value of flux produced by the current flowing through each phase) in the direction as
shown in Fig. 1.40(b). The two fields mmfs. are shown vectorially in Fig. 1.40(d). The armature
field 𝐹𝑎 is perpendicular of the main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 and produces cross-magnetising effect. It is
also clear from the position of the two fields that armature field 𝐅𝐚 lags behind the main magnetic
field 𝐅𝐦 by 90° causing the same effect as it is being caused by a pure inductance.

34
Thus, for a non-inductive load (at unit p.f.) the effect of armature reaction is cross-magnetising
i.e. it distorts the main field.

At Zero Power Factor Lagging

At an instant, t2, depending upon the position of the poles, direction of induced emfs in three coils
is shown in Fig. 1.41(a). For simplicity, the wave diagram of induced emf in coil a – a՛ is only
shown in Fig. 1.41(c). At this instant, induced emf in coil-side ‘a’ is zero and becoming negative.
The position of main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 produced by the exciting field coils is shown in Fig. 1.41(a)
as well as Fig. 1.41(b).

Fig. 1.41 Armature reaction at zero lagging power factor

When a pure inductive load at zero p.f. lagging is connected to the alternator, currents will flow
through the coils, which lag behind their respective induced emfs by 90° electrical. The wave
diagram for the phase representing coil aa՛ is shown in Fig. 1.41(c). Accordingly, the direction of
flow of current in various coil is shown in Fig. 1.41(b). A resultant armature field 𝐹𝑎 of magnitude
1.5 𝜙𝑚 is produced by the current carrying armature conductors in the direction as shown in Fig.
1.41(b). The two fields (mmfs.) are shown vectorially in Fig. 1.41(d). The armature field 𝐹𝑎 acts in
opposite direction to that of main magnetic field 𝜙𝑚 and produces demagnetising effect. It is also
clear from the position of the two fields that armature field 𝐹𝑎 lags behind the main magnetic field
𝐹𝑚 by 180° i.e., it lags by 90° because of a pure inductive load and 90° because of armature
reaction.

Thus, with a pure inductive load (at zero p.f. lagging) the effect of armature reaction is
demagnetising i.e., it weakness the main field.

At Zero Power Factor Leading

35
At an instant 𝑡3 , depending upon the position of the poles, direction of induced emfs in the three
coils is shown in Fig. 1.42(a). Only wave diagram of induced emf in coil a – a՛ is shown in Fig.
1.42(c). At this instant, induced emf in coil side ‘a’ is zero and becoming positive. The position of
main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 produced by the exciting field coils is shown in Fig. 1.42(a) as well as
1.42(b). When a pure capacitive load at zero p.f. leading is connected to the alternator, currents will
flow through the coils which leads their respective induced emfs by 90° electrical. The wave
diagram for the phase representing coil a-a՛ is shown in Fig. 1.42(c).

Accordingly, the direction of flow of current in various coils is shown in Fig. 1.42(b). A
resultant armature field 𝐹𝑎 of magnitude 1.5 𝜙𝑚 is produced as shown in Fig. 1.42(b). The two
fields (mmfs.) are shown vectorially in Fig. 1.42(d). The armature field Fa acts in the same direction
as that of the main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 and produces magnetising effect. It is also clear from the
position of the two fields that the armature field Fa is in phase with the main magnetic field 𝐹𝑚 . In
fact, the armature field was to lead the main field by 90° due capacitive load but it falls back to its
original position due to armature reaction. Hence, the armature field acts in phase with the main
field.

Fig. 1.42 Armature reaction at zero leading power factor

Thus, with a pure capacitive load (at zero p.f. leading) the effect of armature reaction is
magnetising i.e., it strengthens the main field.

Conclusion

The above explanation reveals that

1. The armature reaction flux (𝜙𝑎 = 1.5 𝜙𝑎𝑟𝑚 ) is constant in magnitude and rotates at
synchronous speed.

36
 2. When generator supplies a load at unity pf, the armature reaction is cross-magnetising.

3. When generator supplies a load at zero pf lagging, the armature reaction in demagnetising.

4. When generator supplies a load at zero pf leading, the armature reaction is magnetising

5. In all the cases, if the armature-reaction flux is assumed to act independently of the main field
flux, it induces voltage in each phase which lags the respective phase current by 90°. Hence
armature reaction causes an armature reactance drop

1.27 Effect of Armature Reaction on emf of Alternator

To see the effect of armature reaction on the emf induced in the alternator.

Let, 𝐸0 = emf induced per phase by the main field (flux) at no-load.

𝐸𝑎 = emf induced per phase by the armature field (flux).

E = Net emf induced per phase i.e., resultant of 𝐸𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑎

𝐸̅ = 𝐸̅𝑜 + 𝐸̅𝑎

When the armature is at no-load, no current flows through the armature. Thus, the armature field
is zero. The main field 𝐹𝑚 (or 𝜙𝑚 ) will induce an emf 𝐸0 which lags behind 𝜙𝑚 )by 90° as shown
in 1.43. Therefore, net induced emf E =𝐸0 .
When a non-inductive load is connected to the alternator, current (I) flows through the armature
conductors which is in phase with 𝐸0 and produces an armature field 𝐹𝑎 or 𝜙𝑎 which lags behind
the main field by 90°. An emf 𝐸𝑎 is induced by this field which lags behind the armature field by
90° as shown in Fig. 1.44. Thus, a resultant emf E is obtained across the armature. (𝐸̅ = 𝐸̅𝑜 + 𝐸̅𝑎 ).

Fig. 1.43 Phasor diagram at no-load Fig. 1.44 Phasor diagram for unity p.f.

37
 When a pure inductive load is connected to the alternator, a current (I) flows through the
armature conductors which lags behind E0 by 90°. This current produce armature field 𝜙𝑎 which
further induces an emf 𝐸𝑎 in the armature lagging behind 𝜙𝑎 by 90° as shown in Fig. 1.45. Thus a
resultant emf (E=𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑎 ). is obtained across the armature.
When a pure capacitive load is connected to the alternator, a current (I) flows through the
armature conductors which leads the emf 𝐸0 by 90°. This current produce armature field 𝜙𝑎 which
further induces emf 𝐸𝑎 in the armature lagging behind 𝜙𝑎 by 90° but in phase with 𝐸0 as shown in
Fig. 1.46. Thus, a resultant emf (E=𝐸0 + 𝐸𝑎 ) is obtained across the armature.

Fig. 1.45 Phasor diagram for zero lagging pf Fig. 1.46 Phasor diagram for zero loading

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is concluded that 𝐸0 is always in phase quadrature with the load
current I and proportional to it. It, therefore, resembles with the emf induced in an inductive
reactance so that the effect of armature reaction is exactly as if the stator winding has a reactance
𝑋𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 /I. Whereas 𝑋𝑎 is termed as armature reaction reactance.

Thus, an armature reaction produces a reactance effect in the armature winding called armature
reaction reactance

1.28 Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance

Synchronous reactance: It is fictitious reactance which has the effect equivalent to the combined
effects of both the leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance. It is represented by 𝑋𝑠.

𝑋𝑠 =𝑋𝐿 + 𝑋𝑎

38
Synchronous impedance: The vector sum of armature resistance and synchronous reactance is
known as Synchronous impedance.

It is generally represented by 𝑍𝑆′ .

1.29 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram

R = Armature resistance,

𝑋𝐿 = Leakage reactance,

𝑋𝑎 = Armature reaction reactance

I = Load current

𝐸0 = Induced emf in the armature (voltage at no-load) and

V= Terminal voltage

(Note: All quantities are phase values in case of three-phase machines.)

i.e., 𝑋𝑠 =𝑋𝐿 + 𝑋𝑎
and 𝑍𝑠 is the synchronous impedance

i.e., 𝑍𝑠 =𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑍𝑠 =√𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑠 2

The simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.47(b), where 𝑋𝑠 is the synchronous reactance.
From circuit diagram:
̅̅̅0 =𝑉̅ + ̅̅̅̅
𝐸 𝐼𝑍𝑠
Phasor Diagram: From the simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1.47(b), phasor diagram
of an alternator can be drawn. The phasor diagram depends upon the type of load. The load may be
non-inductive, inductive or capacitive.

Fig. 1.47 Equivalent circuit for alternator

39
The phasor diagram for non-inductive, inductive and capacitive load are shown in Fig. 1.48 (a),
(b) and (c) respectively. While drawing phasor diagram, following steps are followed:

(i) Terminal voltage V is taken as the reference vector.

(ii) Load current I is drawn in phase with voltage vector V for non-inductive load. For inductive
load, it is drawn so that it lags behind the voltage vector by an angle ϕ. Whereas for capacitive
load it leads the voltage vector by an angle 𝜙. Where 𝜙 is the power factor angle.

(iii) Draw voltage drop vector IR parallel to current vector from point A.

(iv) Draw voltage drop vector 𝐼𝑋𝑠 from point B perpendicular to vector AB since it is in quadrature
to current vector.

(v) Join point O and C, where OC is the emf 𝐸𝑂 which is induced due to the main field 𝜙𝑚 or the
terminal voltage at no-load and is the vector sum of V, IR and IXS

Fig. 1.48 Phasor diagram

6.30 Expression for No-load Terminal Voltage

To deduce an expression for no-load terminal voltage, complete the phasor diagrams for various
loads as shown in Fig. 1.49.

The no-load terminal voltage 𝐸o is the actual induced emf in the armature produced by the main
magnetic field 𝜙𝑚 . It is the vector sum of terminal voltage at load, drop in resistance and drop in
synchronous reactance. From phasor diagram of alternator at different load conditions. we can
deduce the expression for no-load terminal voltage.

(i) For non-inductive load (unit p.f.): Considering Fig. 1.49(a), from the right angle triangle
OBC, we get,

40
(ii) For inductive load (lagging p.f.): Considering Fig. 1.49(b), from the right angle triangle
ODC, we get,

Also in right angle triangle OFC,

Fig. 1.49 Phasor diagram of different power factors

41
(iii) For capacitive load (leading p.f.): Considering Fig. 1.49(c), from the right angle triangle ODC,
we get,

Also in right angle triangle OFC,

Approximate expression for no-load terminal voltage (considering δ to be very small)

1.31 Voltage Regulation

We have seen that because of the voltage drop in the armature resistance and synchronous
reactance, the terminal voltage of synchronous generator depends upon the load and its p.f.
The rise in terminal voltage when the given load is thrown off, the excitation and speed remaining
constant, is called the voltage regulation of a synchronous generator (alternator).
If 𝐸0 = no-load terminal voltage and V = terminal voltage at a given load.

42
 E0 −𝑉
Then voltage regulation = per unit
𝑉
E0 −𝑉
Percentages regulation, % Reg = × 100 per unit
𝑉
The voltage regulation is positive both at unit and lagging p.f. because this causes rise in
terminal voltage when the load is thrown off (removed). However, in case of leading p.f. the
terminal voltage may fall when the load is thrown off. Therefore, at leading p.f. voltage
regulation may be negative.

The voltage regulation may be zero, when load and its pf may be such that
*IR cos ϕ = IXs sin ϕ
The voltage regulation of a synchronous generator is usually much high than that of power
transformer because of large amount of voltage drop in synchronous reactance.

1.32 Determination of Voltage Regulation

To determine the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators, the following
methods may be used:
1. Direct load test 2. Indirect Method
1. Direct load test: Direct load test is performed only on small alternators (say 5 kVA). In this
case, the alternator is run at synchronous speed with the help of a prime-moves and its terminal
voltage is adjusted to its rated value V and the load is varied until the ammeter and wattmeter
indicate the rated values at given power factor.
Then the load is removed keeping the speed and field excitation constant. At open circuit i.e., at
no-load, the terminal voltage E0 is recorded. Then voltage regulation is determined as under:
E0 −𝑉
Percentage voltage regulation = × 100
𝑉

2. Indirect method: For large size alternator, indirect methods are used to determine voltage
regulation. These methods are:
(i) Synchronous impedance method or EMF method
(ii) Ampere-turn method or MMF method
(iii) Zero power factor method or Potier method.

1.33 Synchronous Impedance Method or emf Method

This method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by a fictitious
reactance. For a synchronous generator

43
* The approximate expression for 𝐸0 at leading pf is

Voltage regulation will be zero when E0 – V = 0

To determine synchronous impedance, open-circuit and short circuit tests are performed and to
determine synchronous reactance, armature resistance is measured by ammeter-voltmeter method.
By using these parameters, the regulation of the alternator can be determined at any load.

1.33.1 Determination of Synchronous Impedance

To determine the value of synchronous impedance of an alternator experimentally, the following
two tests are performed on the machine:
(i) Open circuit test (ii) Short circuit test.
(i) Open circuit test: To perform open circuit test, the terminals of the alternator are kept open and
is rotated by the prime-mover at synchronous speed. A DC supply is given to the field winding
through a rheostat. A voltmeter is connected across the terminals of the alternator to measure
open circuit voltage E and an ammeter is connected in the field circuit to measure field current
If as shown in Fig. 1.50. The field current If (excitation) is gradually varied (increased in steps)
and the voltage across the terminals of the alternator E is recorded for every change in the field
current. A graph is plotted taking If along abscissa and E along the ordinate called open circuit
characteristics (O.C.C.). The O.C.C. curve so obtained is shown in Fig. 1.52. The curve rises
steeply and then flattened due to saturation of the magnetic circuit.

Fig. 1.50 Circuit diagram for open circuit test on single and three phase alternators

44
Note: In case of three-phase star-connected alternator, to plot the curve phase value of the
terminal voltage E = EL/ √3 is to be considered.

(i) Short circuit test: To perform short circuit test, the terminals of the alternator are short
circuited by a thick strip or an ammeter as shown in Fig. 1.51. And its rotor is rotated by the
prime-mover at synchronous speed. The field current If is gradually increased and the short
circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 is recorded for every change in the field current with the help of ammeter
connected across the alternator terminals. A graph is plotted taking If along abscissa and
ISC along with ordinate called short circuit characteristics (S.C.C.). The S.C.C. curve so
obtained is shown in Fig. 1.52 which is almost a straight line. It should be noted that both the
O.C.C. and S.C.C. curves are drawn on a common field current If as shown in Fig. 1.52.

Fig. 1.51 Circuit diagram for short circuit test on single and three phase alternators

Fig. 1.52 Open circuit and short circuit characteristics

Determination of Synchronous Impedance

45
To determine synchronous impedance of the alternator, let OA be the extension (field current I𝑓 ).
For this field current OA, open circuit voltage is AB (i.e., E) and for the same field current the
short circuit current is AC (i.e., 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ). When the alternator is short circuited terminal voltage is
zero. Therefore, at short circuit, whole of the induced voltage E is being utilised for circulating
the short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 through the synchronous impedance 𝑍𝑆
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑍𝑆
E Open circut voltage
or ZS = = Short circuit voltage
𝐼SC

at the same field current.

The value of synchronous impedance is not constant. Its value is slightly high at low magnetic
saturation. An approximate graph of Z𝑆 against field current. If is drawn by the dotted line as shown
in Fig. 1.52.
Note: The value of synchronous impedance is usually determined at the field current which
provides the rated emf of the machine

1.33.2 Determination of Synchronous Reactance

To determine the value of synchronous reactance, first of all armature resistance is calculated by
voltmeter–ammeter method, circuit shown in Fig. 1.53. Since the value of armature resistance is
very small, a low DC supply voltage is connected across the terminals of a one-phase alternator.
V𝑑𝑐
The value of armature resistance R 𝑑𝑐 = is the DC resistance. The actual resistance of the
I𝑑𝑐

armature of an alternator is 1.25 to 1.75 times to that of DC resistance.

Fig. 1.53 Voltmeter–ammeter test to determine armature resistance

Therefore, 𝑅 = 1.25 R dc
Now synchronous reactance,
X s = √(𝑍)2 − (𝑅)2
Imp. Note: In case of three-phase, star connected alternators, DC source, ammeter and voltmeter
are connected across the terminals, then the measured resistance comes out to be the resistance
of two phases.

46
DC Resistance per phase
measured resistance
R 𝑑𝑐 =
2
Also, all the vector diagrams are drawn considering the phase quantities whether the alternator is
single-phase or three-phase. To determine the regulation, all the quantities must be phase value.

1.34 Modern Alternators

When the terminals of the alternator are short circuited due to any fault (short circuit fault) short
circuit current Isc flows through the armature conductors. This current depends upon the induced
emf E0 and the synchronous impedance Zs of the alternator i.e.,
E0
Isc =
Zs
This short circuit current may damage the armature winding of the alternator if Zs is very small.
Therefore, to limit the short circuit current, the modern alternators are designed for higher
synchronous impedance. The resistance cannot be increased because it would increase the losses
in the machine.
Thus modern alternator are designed for higher synchronous reactance (or leakage reactance) but
smaller resistance. The value of synchronous reactance is some times more than 20 times the
armature resistance. Therefore, for all practical purposes the voltage drop due to armature
resistance is neglected as compared to voltage drop due to synchronous reactance.

1.35 Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR)

The ratio of field current to produce rated voltage on open-circuit to the field current required to
circulate rated current on short-circuit while the machine is driven at synchronous speed is
called short-circuit ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine. From OCC and SCC shown in Fig.
1.54.

47
 Fig, 1.54 OCC and SCC for an alternator
If1 OA A𝐸 A𝐸 1
Short-circuit ratio, SCR= If2
= OD
= DC
= AB
= AB/AE
AB 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛−𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
Where AE = corresponding per unit current on short−circuit = X s
1
SCR= X
s

Thus, SCR is just reciprocal of per unit synchronous reactance X s of the machine. The value of
synchronous reactance depends upon saturated conditions of the machine whereas, SCR is specific
and defined at rated voltage.

Significance of SCR
Smaller is the value of SCR, larger is the value of synchronous reactance which limits the short
circuit current to smaller value. But it causes difficulty during parallel operation of the machines
owing to smaller value of synchronising power.
Larger value of SCR increases the stability of the machine and improves its voltage regulation.
Usually, the SCR of a high speed non-salient pole alternators lies between 0.5 and 0.75 whereas
it lies between 1.0 and 1.5 for low speed salient pole type alternators. Therefore, the salient
pole type alternators are more stable than non-salient pole type alternators.

1.36 Assumptions Made in Synchronous Impedance Method

The following assumptions are made in synchronous impedance method:
1. The synchronous impedance is considered to be constant.

48
 In fact, it is constant only when OCC an SCC are straight line. But above the Knee-point of
OCC, when the saturation starts, the value of synchronous impedance starts decreasing. Hence,
the synchronous impedance obtained under test conditions is usually larger than actual value.
This is the major source of error of determining voltage regulation of an alternator by
synchronous impedance method.
2. The flux under test conditions is considered to be the same as that under load conditions.
The same value of field current is not producing the same flux always. When the armature is
short circuited, the armature current lags behind the generated voltage by almost 90°, hence
armature reaction produces demagnetizing effect. This reduces the degree of saturation further.
The actual resultant flux is reduced which reduces the generated emf. These conditions are
different from those when the machine is actually loaded. Hence, the synchronous impedance
obtained under test condition is usually larger than actual value. This causes a source of error
while determining voltage regulation of an alternator by this method.
3. The effect of armature reaction flux is usually replaced by a voltage drop proportional to the
armature current. This assumption also causes errors because the shift of armature flux varies
with the power factor and the load current.
4. The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is considered to be constant regardless of the
power factor. Although, this assumption is substantially true for non-salient pole type
alternators because air-gap in these machines is uniform. But in case of salient pole type
alternators, the position of armature flux relative to field poles varies with the power factor.
This assumption also introduces considerable error.
Hence, it is found that the regulation determined by using synchronous impedance method is
higher than the actual value.

1.37 Ampere-turn (or mmf) Method

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature
reaction by a fictitious reactance. Accordingly, some assumptions were made. But due to those
assumptions, the voltage regulation obtained by that method was higher than the actual value.
In ampere-turn or mmf method, the effect of armature leakage reactance is to be replaced by an
equivalent additional armature reaction mmf. This additional mmf is combined with the armature
reaction mmf.
To determine the regulation of an alternator by mmf method, the following information is required.
(i) The resistance of the stator winding per phase.
(ii) Open-circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
(iii) Short-circuit characteristics.

49
All these information can be obtained by performing the same tests as preformed in emf method
i.e., open circuit test, short circuit test and ammeter–voltmeter method for finding armature
resistance.
The open circuit and short circuit characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.54, where field current 𝐼𝑓2 ; is
determined to give rated voltage V on no-load, neglecting armature resistance drop, the field
current is determined to cause short-circuit current, equal to full load current, on short circuit.
On short circuit, the field excitation 𝐼𝑓2 .balances the impedance drop in addition to armature
reaction on full load. But, as we know that R is usually very small and XL is also small for low
voltage on short circuit, so impedance drop can be neglected. Hence pf on short circuit is almost
zero lagging and the field amp-turns are used entirely to overcome the armature reaction.
Therefore, 𝐼𝑓2 , gives demagnetising amp-turns at full load.
Now, let us consider that the alternator is supplying full load current at a pf of cos ϕ. Draw a line
OA representing 𝐼𝑓1 to give full load rated voltage, V [actually it is equal to V + I R cos ϕ] as shown
in Fig. 1.55. Then draw AB at an angle (90° ± 𝜙) representing 𝐼𝑓2 to give full load current on short
circuit; + ve sign for lagging pf and -ve sign for leading pf. Now find field current If measuring OB,
which will give open-circuit EMF 𝐸0 , which can be determined from OCC.
Then percentage regulation can be determined from the relation.

𝐸0 − 𝑉
% Regulation = × 100
V

This method of determining synchronous impedance is known as optimistic method since it gives
values lower than actual values. It is because the excitation to overcome armature reaction is
determined on unsaturated part of the magnetising curve.

50
 Fig. 1.55 Phasor diagram at different power factors
This method of determining synchronous impedance is known as optimistic method since it
gives values lower than actual values. It is because the excitation to overcome armature reaction
is determined on unsaturated part of the magnetising curve.

1.38 Zero Power Factor or Potier Method

The regulation obtained by synchronous impedance (or emf) method and ampere-turn (or mmf)
method is based on the total synchronous reactance i.e., (the sum of reactance due to armature
leakage flux and due to armature reaction effect). This introduces error due to vectorial addition of
magnetic fluxes. Whereas, the zero power factor method is based on the separation of reactances
due to leakage flux and that due to armature reaction flux, therefore, it gives more accurate results.

For determining voltage regulation by this method, the following data is required:
(i) effective resistance of armature winding
(ii) open-circuit characteristic
(iii) field current to circulate full-load current in the stator and
(iv) zero-power factor full-load voltage characteristic—a curve plotted between terminal voltage
and field current while the machine is being running on synchronous speed and delivering
full-load current at zero power factor.

51
The first three requirements can be fulfilled by performing open circuit test, short circuit test and
resistance measurement test, as discussed earlier. The curve of zero power factor characteristic
can be obtained by taking various steps as explained below:
1. The machine is rotated at rated synchronous speed by a prime-mover.
2. A pure inductive load (variable load reactors or an under-excited synchronous motor) is
connected across the armature terminals and the excitation or field current of the alternator is
raised so as to cause flow of full-load armature current.
Usually, the alternator is loaded by an under-excited synchronous motor while plotting zero pf
full-load curve.
3. The value of the reactance is then increased step by step in such a way that the excitation
current is adjusted to a value that causes full-load rated armature current to flow. In the process,
the armature terminal-voltages are varied from 125 % to 25 % of the rated voltage in steps,
maintaining the speed and rated armature current constant throughout the test.
4. Note down the armature terminal voltages and excitation currents at each step.
5. Draw a curve between terminal voltage and excitation current, as shown in Fig. 1.66. It gives
the zero-power factor (lagging) characteristic.
Now, the zero-power factor (lagging) characteristic can be used for obtaining the Potier reactance,
it is sufficient to determine the point representing rated armature current and rated voltage. This is
indicated by point B in Fig. 1.66.
From OCC and zero power factor curve, it reveals that there is a definite relationship between the
zero-power factor (lagging) characteristic and an open-circuit characteristic of an alternator. The
zero power factor characteristic curve is of exactly the same shape, as that of OCC but it is shifted
vertically downward by leakage reactance drop I XL and horizontally, by the armature reaction
mmf.
Zero power factor full-load voltage-excitation characteristic can be drawn by knowing two points
A and B. Point A is obtained from a short-circuit test with full-load armature current. Hence OA
represents excitation (field current) required to overcome demagnetising effect of armature reaction
and to balance leakage reactance drop at full load. Point B is obtained when full load current flows
through the armature but wattmeter reads zero.

52
 Fig. 1.66 OCC of the alternator with zero pf full-load curve
From point B, line BC is drawn equal and parallel to AO. Then a line is drawn through C parallel
to initial straight part of OCC (parallel to extended OG), intersecting the OCC at D. BD is joined
and a perpendicular DF is dropped on BC. The triangle BFD is imposed at various points of OCC
to obtain corresponding points on the zero factor curve.
In triangle BDF the length BF represents armature reaction excitation and the length DF represents
leakage reactance drop (I𝑋𝐿 )*. This is known as Potier reactance voltage drop and the triangle is
known as Potier triangle. The Potier reactance is given, as
𝐷𝐹(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝑋𝑃 =
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
It is observed that in case of cylindrical rotor machines, Potier reactance is nearly equal to armature
leakage reactance, but in case of salient pole machines, the magnetising circuit is more saturated
and the armature leakage reactance is smaller than the Potier reactance.

Potier Regulation Diagram

To determine voltage regulation, Potier regulation diagram is drawn as follows:

(i) OV is drawn horizontally to represent terminal voltage, V on full load and OI is drawn to
represent full load current at a given power factor. (say lagging).

(ii) Draw VE perpendicular to phasor OI and equal to reactance drop (I𝑋𝐿 ), neglecting resistance
drop.

53
(iii) Join OE, where OE represents generated emf E.

(iv) From OCC find field excitation 𝐼𝑓1 corresponding to generated emf E.

(v) Draw oa = 𝐼𝑓1 perpendicular to phasor OE to represent excitation required to induce emf OE
on open circuit.

(vi) Draw ab = 𝐼𝑓2 parallel to load current phasor OI to represent excitation equivalent to full-load
armature reaction.

(vii) Join ob = 𝐼𝑓 which gives total excitation required. If the load is thrown off, then terminal
voltage will be equal to generated emf corresponding to field excitation ob = 𝐼𝑓 . Hence, emf
E0 may be determined from OCC corresponding to field excitation ob = 𝐼𝑓 . Where,the phasor
E0 will lag behind phasor ob by 90°. Here, EE0 represents voltage drop due to armature
reaction. Now regulation can be obtained from the relation.

𝐸0 −𝑽
% Regulation = × 100
𝑉

Fig. 1.67 Phasor diagram

1.39 Power Developed by Cylindrical Synchronous Generators

The simplified equivalent circuit of a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator is shown in Fig.
1.78,
where
V = Terminal voltage (phase value) E = Excitation voltage (phase value)
I = armature or load current/phase 𝜙 = pf angle (lagging)
δ= load angle between V and E
The phasor diagram for the machine for inductive load is shown in Fig. 1.79.
Synchronous impedance,

54
 Fig. 6.78 Equivalent circuit Fig. 6.79 Phasor diagram with lagging pf

Taking terminal voltage V (phase value) as reference vector

1.39.1 Power Output of an AC Generator (in Complex Form)

1.39.2 Real Power Output of an AC Generator

Considering real part of the eqn. (vii), we get,

55
1.39.3 Reactive Power Output of an AC Generator

From eqn. (vii), we get

1.39.4 Power Input to an AC Generator (in Complex Form)

56
1.39.5 Real Power Input to an AC Generator

Considering real part of the eqn. (xii), we get

1.39.6 Reactive Power Input to an AC Generator

From eqn. (xii), we get,

Mech. power input to the AC generator

𝑃i(mech) = 𝑃ig + friction and windage loss + Core loss

1.39.7 Condition for Maximum Power Output

Output power basically depends upon load (or torque) angle δ. Therefore, condition for maximum
power output is obtained, when

Differentiating the equation of real power output with respect to δ and equating it to zero, we get.

57
As E, V, ZS and R are constant

Thus, the output power will be maximum, when load angle, 𝛿 = impedance angle 𝜃𝑠
The maximum output power can be obtained by substituting this value in the given equation, i.e.,

1.39.8 Condition for Maximum Power Input

To obtain this condition, put

Differentiating the equation of real power input with respect to 𝛿 and equating it to zero, we get,

Thus, the input power will be maximum, when

load angle, 𝛿 = 180° – impedance angle 𝜃𝑠
The maximum input power can be obtained by substituting the value of 𝛿 in given equation of
power input, i.e.,

58
1.39.9 Power Equations, when Armature Resistance is Neglected
When armature resistance is neglected, R = 0; 𝑍𝑠 = Xs; 𝛼𝑠 = 0.
Real power output [Considering equation (ix)]

Reactive power output [Considering equation (x)]

Real power input [Considering equation (xiii)]

Reactive power input [Considering equation (xiv)]

1.40 Two-Reactance Concept for Salient Pole Synchronous Machines

In case of a multi-polar cylindrical rotor machine, the airgap is uniform and therefore, its reactance
remains the same, irrespective of the rotor position. The effect of armature reaction, fluxes and
voltages induced can, therefore, be treated in a simple way with concept of a synchronous reactance
and taking it as constant for all positions of field poles with respect to the armature. But in case of
a salient pole synchronous machine, the air-gap is non-uniform due to which its reactance varies
with the rotor position. Therefore, a salient pole machine possesses two axes of geometric
symmetry
(i) field pole axis, called direct axis or d-axis and
(ii) axis passing through the centres of the inter-polar space, called the quadrature axis or q-axis,
these axes are shown in Fig. 1.80. In case of a cylindrical rotor machines, there is only one
axis of symmetry (pole axis or direct axis).

59
 Fig. 1.80 Representation of d-axis and q-axis
Thus, for salient pole machines, the reluctance of the magnetic paths on which the induced emf
depends, acts differently along the direct axis and quadrature axis. The reluctance of the direct axis
magnetic circuit is due to yoke and teeth of the stator, air-gap, and pole shoe and core of the rotor.
In quadrature axis, the reluctance is mainly due to large air-gap in the interpolar space.
Thus it is observed that because of non-uniformity of the reluctance of the magnetic paths,
the mmf of the armature is divided into two components namely:
(i) a direct acting component and (ii) a quadrature (or cross) component.
We have seen that when armature current is in phase with the excitation voltage E the entire mmf
of the armature acts at right angles to the axis of the salient poles and, therefore, all the armature
mmf is in quadrature. But, if the armature current is in quadrature with the excitation voltage E, the
entire mmf of the armature acts directly along the magnetic axis of the salient poles. Hence, all of
the armature mmf is either added or subtracted from the mmf of the salient pole field. However,
when the phase difference between armature current and excitation voltage, is of some angle in
between 0 and 90°, the armature mmf will have both a direct acting and a quadrature component.
The directacting component is proportional to the sine of the phase angle between the armature
current and excitation voltage, whereas the quadrature (or cross) component is proportional to the
cosine of the phase angle between the armature current and the excitation voltage.
The two reactance concept is similar to the synchronous impedance concept where the effect of
armature reaction is taken into account by means of equivalent armature reactance voltage. Since,
there is difference in the reluctance of the magnetic paths upon which the two components of the
armature mmf act, the value of the equivalent reactance for the direct component of armature mmf
is greater than the value of the equivalent reactance for the quadrature component of the armature
mmf. Thus the two-reactance concept for salient-pole machines replaces the effect of armature
reaction by two fictitious voltages. These reactance voltages are respectively
𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑎𝑑 and 𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑎𝑞 , where 𝐼𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑞 are the components of the armature current along direct and
quadrature axis respectively.

60
Each of these components of armature current also, produce a leakage-reactance voltage caused by
the armature leakage flux. However, the armature leakage reactance exists is assumed to have the
same value 𝑋𝐿 for both components of the armature current, Therefore, synchronous reactance for
each component of the armature mmf is as follows:
Synchronous reactance for direct axis,

Synchronous reactance for quadrature axis,

The voltage equation for each phase of the armature based on the two-reactance concept,

Usually, for salient pole synchronous machines 𝑋𝑞 = 0.6 to 0.7 times 𝑋𝑑 whereas in cylindrical
rotor machines 𝑋𝑞 = 𝑋𝑑
1.40.1 Determination of 𝑿𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿𝒒 by Low Voltage Slip Test
To determine the value of. 𝑋𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑞 a low voltage slip test is performed on the machine, as
described below:
Step-I: The circuit is arranged as shown in Fig. 1.81.

Fig. 1.81 Circuit for low-voltage test

Step-II: A three-phase balanced reduced voltage (say V volt) is applied to the stator winding of the
unexcited machine operating at a speed little less than its synchronous speed (slip being less than
1%).
Step-III: Using oscillographs, measure and draw the wave shapes of the voltage applied across
armature winding, current flowing through it and the voltage induced in the field winding (see Fig.
1.82)
Theory: When low voltage V is applied to the stator winding, a current I flows through it
which produces stator mmf. This stator mmf moves slowly relative to the poles and induces an emf
in the circuit at slip frequency.

61
When the axis of the poles and axis of the armature reaction mmf wave coincide, the armature mmf
acts through the field magnetic circuit. The voltage applied to the armature is then equal to drop
caused by the direct component of armature reaction reactance and leakage reactance.

Fig. 1.82 Wave diagrams for applied voltage and armature current
When the armature reaction mmf is in quadrature with the field poles, the applied voltage is equal
to the leakage reactance drop plus the equivalent voltage drop of the corresponding field
component. Accordingly, the value. 𝑋𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑑 is determined from the oscillograph record as
mentioned below:

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑋𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑑 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

1.41 Construction of Phasor Diagram for Two-Reaction Concept

To construct the phasor diagram for two reaction concepts, the values of 𝑋𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑞 must be
known. The following steps are used in sequence to draw a phasor diagram:

(i) Taking voltage phasor as a reference vector, the current phasor OI is drawn lagging behind the
voltage vector by an angle 𝜙 depending upon the load conditions as shown in Fig. 1.83.

62
 Fig. 1.83 Phasor diagram of a salient pole alternator

(ii) From the extreme point of the voltage phasor a line parallel to current phasor OI and equal to
IR is drawn.(iii) From the extreme point of the phasor IR a line perpendicular to current phasor OI
and equal to 𝐼𝑋𝑑 is drawn

(iv) Draw a line from the origin O passing through the extreme point of 𝐼𝑋𝑞 phasor. This line gives
the direction of excitation voltage 𝐸0 .

(v) Knowing the direction of 𝐸𝑂 the currents 𝐼𝑑 and 𝐼𝑞 are drawn and their values are determined.

(vi) From extreme point of vector IR, draw a vector 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 perpendicular to 𝐼𝑑 and 𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 from the
extreme point of vector 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 as shown in Fig. 1.83, perpendicular to 𝐸0 .

(vii) By adding vectorially 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 and 𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 to extremity of phasor IR, the magnitude of excitation
voltage 𝐸0 is determined.

The angle θ between E0 and I is called the internal power factor angle whereas, the angle 𝛿
between 𝐸0 and V is called the load or power angle.

The phasor diagram is redrawn in Fig. 1.84 taking 𝐸0 in horizontal direction.

From Fig 1.84

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 Fig. 1.84 Phasor diagram of an alternator with two reaction concept

𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼 sin 𝜃, 𝐼𝑞 = 𝐼 cos 𝜃,

In right ∠triangle BFE

∠𝐁𝐅𝐄 = 𝜃 (since line 𝐁𝐅 is perpendicular to phasor 𝐎𝐈 and line 𝐄𝐅 is perpendicular to

phasor 𝐸0 . Again redrawing the phasor diagram with extended lines is shown in Fig. 1.85.

Fig. 1.85 Phasor diagram considering armature

Load angle 𝛿 =θ– ϕ (for* generating action)

For lagging power factor, angle ϕ is taken as +ve but for leading power factor it is taken as –ve.
Usually, the value armature resistance is so small as compared to reactance that it is neglected, then
the phasor diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 1.86.The load angle 𝛿 can be determined directly as
below:

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Fig. 1.86 Phasor diagram neglecting armature resistance

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1.43 Power Developed by a Salient Pole Synchronous Generator

Power developed per phase,

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

= 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

Referring Fig. 1.86

For 3-phase synchronous generators, power developed will be,

From the above expression, it is very clear that power developed consists of two terms, the first
term representing power due to excitation and the second term represents the reluctance power
i.e., power due to salient rotor construction. In case of a cylindrical rotor machine 𝑋𝑑 = 𝑋𝑞 and
hence the second term becomes zero and the power is given by the first term only.

1.44 Transients in Alternators

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A sudden change in the operating conditions of an alternator causes transients. Transients may
occur due to

(i) Switching
(ii) Sudden change of load
(iii) Short –circuiting (either line-to line or line to neutral or short circuiting of all the
terminals).

The short-circuiting of thermals may develop severe mechanical stresses on the armature winding
which may damage the machine or its prime-mover. Therefore, it is desirable to analyse the
synchronous machines under such conditions to predict the possible conditions that may occur due
to these abnormal operations. The complete analysis of transient conditions that may occur due to
short – circuiting is quite extensive and beyond the scope of this book. However, we shall limit our
discussions regarding this phenomena to the extent that how to determine the short-circuit transient
currents and the reactance that limit these currents.

The analysis of transients depends upon two fundamental facts i.e.,

(i) The current in an inductive circuit cannot change instantly and

(ii) The theory of constant flux linkages which states that flux linkages cannot change with a
closed. circuit having zero resistance and no source.

Consider a three-phase alternator running at synchronous speed with its DC field excitation,
without any load. When a short-circuit occurs at its terminals, the resulting currents in the three
phases will develop as shown in Fig 1.91

67
 Fig. 1.91 Wave diagram of currents on the three-phases

The armature current in each phase has an AC as well as DC component. The AC component
corresponds to the armature current required to oppose the time varying flux produced by the field
winding as it rotates and the DC component corresponds to the initial flux linkages exist at the
instant of short circuit. The net resultant of these currents produces the armature flux linkages. Each
phase of armature keeps its initial flux linkages constant. The similar effects occur in the rotor field
winding and these actions occur simultaneously. Most of the synchronous machines have damper
winding which has resistance, self-inductance and mutual inductance with respect to armature and
field windings. This winding also affects the short circuit currents. The transient conditions
(currents) do not remain indefinitely. These tend to decay due to resistance of armature and field
winding, as shown in Fig. 1.92.

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 Fig. 1.92 Symmetrical short-circuit stator current in synchronous machine

As the voltage at the three phases are 120° out of phase, the short circuit occur at different voltages
at the three phases. Accordingly, the AC component of currents, at the instant of short circuit, is
different in each phase. As a result, the DC component of armature current is also different in each
phase. The total initial current in about 1.5 times AC component of current.

As shown in Fig. 1.92, the AC component of current can be divided into three distinct periods

(i) Subtransient period: During one cycle or so, the AC current is very large and falls very
rapidly. This period of time is called sub transient period and the rms value of AC current
flowing during this period is called sub-transient current (𝐼′′ ). This current is developed
due to the effect of both damper and field winding. It falls quickly with a time constant
𝑇𝑑′′
(ii) Transient period: After sub-transient period, the current continues to fall but at slow rate
till it attains a steady value. This period of slow decay is called transient period and the
rms value of AC current during this period is called transient current (I’). it is caused in
the field winding at the instant of short circuit. The time constant of transient period (𝑇𝑑 ′)
is much longer (nearly 5 times) than the sub-transient time period. It is because the time
constant of field winding circuit is much longer than damper winding circuit.
(iii) Steady state period: After transient period, the short circuit current reaches a steady state
value ISC It persists as long the circuit is not opened by some protective device.
It is possible to observe the three periods of current if the rms value of AC component is
plotted as a function of time on a semi-log scale, as shown in Fig. 1.93. Accordingly, it is
possible to determine the time constants 𝑇𝑑 ′′ and 𝑇𝑑 ′ from such a plot.

69
1.44.1 Sub-transient, Transient and Direct-Reactance
Sub-transient current 𝐼′′ is the rms value of the initial current which occur at the instant of short
circuit (i.e., oa √2 ) the corresponding value of reactance is known as direct axis sub-transient
reactance (𝑋𝑑 ′′).

The transient current envelope cuts the y-axis at point b (see Fig. 1.92). I’ is the rms value of
transient current (i.e., ob √2) and the corresponding value of reactance is called direct axis transient
reactance (Xd՛՛).

Similarly, the rms value of the current represented by intercept oc (i.e., oc√2) is known as steady
state short circuit current 𝐼𝑠𝑐 and the corresponding reactance is called the direct axis reactance
𝑋𝑑 .

Fig. 1.93 Graph for transient current

70
Where 𝐸0 is the rms value of the open circuit voltage per phase.

The rms value of current at any time t [i.e., I (t)] after short circuit can be determined by the
equation

1.45 Losses in a Synchronous Machine and Efficiency

A synchronous machine is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa.
While doing so, the whole of input energy does not appear at the output but a part of it is lost in the
form of heat in the surroundings. This wasted energy is called losses in the machine.
These losses affect the efficiency of the machine. A reduction in these losses leads to higher
efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a synchronous machine is to reduce these
losses.

The various losses occurring in a synchronous machine can be sub-divided as:

1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses.
3. Mechanical losses
4. Stray losses

1. Copper losses: The various windings of the synchronous machine such as armature and
field winding are made of copper and have some resistance. When current flows through
them, there will be power loss proportional to the square of their respective currents.
These power losses are called copper losses.
In general, the various copper losses in a synchronous machine are:
(i) Armature copper loss = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
(ii) Field winding copper loss = 𝑰𝟐𝒇 𝑹
(iii) Brush contact loss = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒃
The brush contact loss is generally included in field winding copper losses.
2. Iron losses: The losses which occur in the iron parts of the DC machine are called iron
losses or core losses or magnetic losses. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss: Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic

71
 flux, this loss occurs. It is due to retentivity (a property) of the magnetic material.
It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by the following expression:
𝑷𝒉 = 𝑲𝒉 V f 𝑩𝟏.𝟔
𝒎

(ii) where, 𝐾ℎ = hysteresis constant in J/m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of
magnetic material during one magnetic reversal, its value depends
upon nature of material;
V = volume of magnetic material in m3.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal in cycle/second and
𝐵𝑚 = maximum flux density in the magnetic material in tesla.
It occurs in the armature (stator core). To minimise this loss, the armature core is
made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis constant.
(iii) Eddy current loss: When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux
is cut by the magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which circulates eddy
currents through it. These eddy currents produce eddy current loss in the form of
heat. It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by the expression:
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 V 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚
2

where,
𝐾𝑒 = constant called co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of
magnetic material;
t = thickness of lamination in m;
V, f and 𝐵𝑚 are the same as above.

The major part of this loss occur in the armature core. To minimise this loss, the armature
core is laminated into thin sheets (0·3 to 0·5 mm) since this loss is directly proportional
to the square of thickness of the laminations.

3. Mechanical losses: As the field system of a synchronous machine is a rotating part, some
power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating field system (windage loss).
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and slip rings (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication is done
at the bearings.
4. Stray losses. In addition to the iron losses, the core losses are also caused by distortion of the
magnetic field under load conditions and losses in insulation of armature and field winding, these
losses are called stray lasses. These losses are also included while determining the efficiency of
synchronous machines.

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Efficiency of a synchronous Generator
The ratio of output power to the input power of a synchronous generator is called its efficiency

1.46 Power Flow Diagram

The power flow diagram for a synchronous machine working as a generation is shown in Fig.
1.94

Fig. 1.94 Power flow diagram

1.47 Necessity of Cooling

In the synchronous machine, following are the main losses;
(i) Copper losses (ii) Iron losses (iii) Mechanical losses.

Because of these losses heat is produced which increases the temperature of the machine. This rise
in temperature deteriorates the dielectric strength and ability to withstand mechanical stresses of
the insulation. Thus it reduces the life of insulation on which life of machine depends. The rise in
temperature further increases the losses and reduces the efficiency. Hence the rise in temperature
is very harmful for the electrical machines. Therefore, various means are adopted to dissipate this
heat into the atmosphere and to reduce the temperature of machine. At a stage when the rate of heat
production becomes equal to the rate of heat dissipation, final temperature is achieved. Hence, to
keep the temperature of the machine within the limits, efficient cooling method is necessary.

1.48 Methods of Cooling

Cooling methods of synchronous machine are broadly divided into;
(i) Open-circuit cooling (ii) Closed-circuit cooling

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(i) Open-Circuit Cooling: In an open-circuit cooling system, a machine is cooled by the intake
of cold air taken from atmosphere, which passes through the machine and is expelled into the
atmosphere.
To prevent clogging of the machine with dust which air always contains, a filter may be
mounted at the air intake, but it must be frequently cleaned. However, the filter increases the
resistance to air flow, requiring addition fan power.

Fig. 1.95 Open circuit cooling

In this method, fans are mounted on the rotor shaft which induces a stream of air flow into the
machine. The air enters the machine from one side and leaves at the other. Air flows axially and
radially in the machine and cools it (see Fig. 1.95). In bigger machines separate fans are driven by
the independent motor are employed to circulate more air and improve the cooling efficiency.

(ii) Closed-Circuit Cooling: The closed-circuit cooling system is one in which the same
volume of air passes through a closed circuit. It passes through the alternator, becomes
heated, then it passes through air cooler, where it is cooled down and again circulated
through the alternator by a forced fan as shown in Fig. 1.96. The air thus circulates in a
closed system. The closed-circuit cooling system is widely used with large synchronous
generators. In closed-circuit cooling system not only air, but also other gases may be used
for cooling of large synchronous generators. At present hydrogen at a pressure of 3–4
atmosphere is mainly used.

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 Fig. 1.96 Closed circuit cooling

Hydrogen cooling has a number of valuable advantages over air cooling as mentioned below;

1. The heat conductivity of hydrogen is 7 times greater than that of air and as a result the
surface heat-transfer coefficient is 1·4 times greater than air. Hydrogen, therefore, cools a
machine more effectively and a machine of higher output can be built with smaller
dimensions.

2. Hydrogen is 14 times lighter than air. Hence, the windage losses, which in high speed
machines make up the bulk of the total losses, decreases to about one-tenth of the losses
when air is used. This results in the increase in efficiency of the machine.

3. With the use of hydrogen, when the corona phenomena occurs ozone gas is not liberated to
cause intense oxidation of the insulation. Thus the service life of insulation is improved.

1.48 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance and routine inspection techniques conserve and prolong the life of
electric machinery. Synchronous machines with general purpose ball or roller bearings require
periodic lubrication while those equipped with self-lubricating “lifetime” bearings require no
lubrication at all. It may be noted that in lubricating electric machinery (synchronous
machines), excessive oiling is just as damaging as insufficient lubrication. Hence, periodic and
appropriate lubrication is required.

In synchronous machines, the brushes and sliprings also require periodic maintenance in
addition to lubrication. The sliprings must be checked and cleaned periodically for dust
sticking on its surface.

Care must be taken that there should not be any type of oil leakage onto the stator. This may
cause insulation breakdown of stator winding.

The body temperature and insulation temperature must be recorded frequently. Its value must
fall within the prescribed limits.

75