RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

Relations
The term ‘relation’ in mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation in
English language, according to which two objects or quantities are related if there is

a recognisable connection or link between the two objects or quantities.

Types of Relations
Empty relation:
A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to
any element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.

Universal relation:
A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related

to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.

Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial

relations.
Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(i) reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A,

(ii) symmetric, if (a1 , a2 ) ∈ R implies that (a2 , a1 ) ∈ R, for all a1 , a2 ∈ A.

(iii) transitive, if (a1 , a2 ) ∈ R and (a2 , a3 ) ∈ R implies that (a1 , a3 ) ∈ R,

for all a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ A.
 Equivalence relation

A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive,

symmetric and transitive.

Example:
Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R in A

given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R′ = {(a, b) : the

difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal

relation.
Solution:
Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = φ, showing that R is the empty relation. It is

also obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the

school has to be less than 3 meters. This shows that R′ = A × A is the universal
relation.
Example:
Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1,

2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.

Solution:
R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric, as (1,

2) ∈ R but (2, 1) ∉ R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ R

but (1, 3) ∉ R.
Example:
Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by

R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a – b}
is an equivalence relation.

Solution:
R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a – a) for all a ∈ Z. Further, if (a, b) ∈ R, then 2
divides a – b. Therefore, 2 divides b – a. Hence, (b, a) ∈ R, which shows that R is

symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then a – b and b – c are

divisible by 2. Now, a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) is even. So, (a – c) is divisible by 2.

This shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.

Example:
Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by R = {(a, b) :
both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but

no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4,

6}.
Solution:
Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so that (a,

a) ∈ R. Further, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ both a and b must be either odd or even ⇒ (b,

a) ∈ R. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ all elements a, b, c, must be

either even or odd simultaneously ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R. Hence, R is an equivalence

relation. Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all
the elements of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the
the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, as all of them are even. Also, no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as
elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements of {2, 4, 6} are even.

Functions

A function f is a relation from a set A to set B such that the domain of f is A

and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the same first element. Also, A and
B are two non-empty sets.

Types of Relations
one-one (or injective):
A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of
distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1 , x2 ∈ X, f(x1 ) = f(x2

) implies x1 = x2 . Otherwise, f is called many-one.

onto (or surjective):

A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is

the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an

element x in X such that f(x) = y.

one-one and onto (or bijective):

A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both

one-one and onto.

Example:
Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A → N be

function defined by f(x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.

Solution:
No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore, f
must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll

numbers of students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll

number of any student of the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element
of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.

Example:
Show that the function f : N → N, given by f(x) = 2x, is one-one but not onto.
Solution:
The function f is one-one, for f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Further, f is

not onto, as for 1 ∈ N, there does not exist any x in N such that f(x) = 2x = 1.

Example:
Show that the function f : N → N, given by f(1) = f(2) = 1 and f(x) = x – 1, for

every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.

Solution:
f is not one-one, as f(1) = f(2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y ∈ N, y ≠ 1, we can

choose x as y + 1 such that f(y + 1) = y + 1 – 1 = y. Also for 1 ∈ N, we have f(1) = 1.

Example:

Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.

Solution:

Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can
be only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements

of the co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f
must be one-one.

Example:
Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} must be onto
Solution:
Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.

Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the composition of f and g,

denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A → C given by

gof(x) = g(f(x)), ∀ x ∈ A.
Invertible Function
A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function
g : Y → X such that gof = Ix and fog = Iy . The function g is called the inverse of
-1
f and is denoted by f . Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto
and conversely, if f is one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact
significantly helps for proving a function f to be invertible by showing that f is

one-one and onto, specially when the actual inverse of f is not to be

determined.

Example:

Let f : X → Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by R = {(a, b): f(a) =

f(b)}. Examine whether R is an equivalence relation or not.

Solution:
For every a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R, since f(a) = f(a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ f(a) = f(b) ⇒ f(b) = f(a) ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Therefore, R is

symmetric. Further, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ f(a) = f(b) and f(b) = f(c) ⇒
f(a) = f(c) ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an

equivalence relation.

Example:
Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution:
One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three

symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is

same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.

 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

Introduction

Inverse trigonometric functions are also called “arc functions” since, for a given

value of trigonometric functions, they produce the length of arc needed to obtain
that particular value.
Inverse trigonometric functions are defined as the inverse functions of the basic

trigonometric functions, which are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant functions.

Basic Concepts
sine function, i.e., sine : R → [– 1, 1]
cosine function, i.e., cos : R → [– 1, 1]

tangent function, i.e., tan : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) π/2 , n ∈ Z} → R

cotangent function, i.e., cot : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R

secant function, i.e., sec : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) π/2 , n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)

cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)

Table of domain and ranges

The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value

branches) along with their domains and ranges.

sin–1 [-1,1] -> [(- π/2),(π/2)]

cos–1 [-1,1] -> [0,π]

cosec–1 R - (–1,1) -> [(- π/2),(π/2)] -{0}

sec–1 R – (–1, 1) -> [0,π] -{π/2}

tan–1 R -> (- π/2),(π/2)

cot–1 R -> (0, π)

Note:
1. sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 = 1/sin x and
similarly for other trigonometric functions.

2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned,

we mean the principal value branch of that function.

3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range

of principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse

trigonometric functions.
Example:

Find the principal value of sin-1 1

√2

Solution:
1
= y. Then, sin y = -π , π
-1
Let sin and
√2 2 2

sin π =
1
Therefore, principal value of sin -1 1 is π
4 √2 √2 4

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Some properties of inverse trigonometric functions are listed below:
Set 1:

Sin-1(x) = cosec-1(1/x), x∈ [−1,1]−{0}

Cos (x) = sec (1/x), x ∈ [−1,1]−{0}
-1 -1

-1
Tan-1(x) = cot-1(1/x), if x > 0 (or) cot (1/x) −π, if x < 0

Cot-1(x) = tan-1(1/x), if x > 0 (or) tan-1(1/x) + π, if x < 0

Set 2:
Sin-1(−x) = −Sin-1(x)

Tan-1(- x) = −Tan-1(x)

Cos-1(−x) = π − Cos-1(x)

Cosec-1(−x) = − Cosec -1(x)

Sec-1 (−x) = π − Sec-1(x)
-1 -1
Cot (−x) = π − Cot (x)
Set 3:

Sin-1(1/x) = cosec-1x, x≥1 or x≤−1

Cos-1(1/x) = sec-1x, x≥1 or x≤−1

Tan-1(1/x) = −π + cot-1(x)

Set 4:

Sin-1(cos θ) = π/2 − θ, if θ∈[0,π]

Cos-1(sin θ) = π/2 − θ, if θ∈[−π/2, π/2]

Tan-1(cot θ) = π/2 − θ, θ∈[0,π]
-1
Cot (tan θ) = π/2 − θ, θ∈[−π/2, π/2]
Sec-1(cosec θ) = π/2 − θ, θ∈[−π/2, 0]∪[0, π/2]
Cosec-1(sec θ) = π/2 − θ, θ∈[0,π]−{π/2}

Sin-1(x) = cos-1 [√(1−x 2)], 0≤x≤1= −cos -1[√(1−x 2)], −1≤x<0

Set 5:
Sin-1x + Cos-1x = π/2
-1 -1
Tan x + Cot (x) = π/2

Sec-1x + Cosec-1 x = π/2

Set 6:
sin-1(x) + sin-1(y) = sin [x√(1−y2 )+ y√(1−x 2)]
cos-1x + cos-1y = cos [xy−√(1−x 2)√(1−y 2)]
Some extra trigonmetric functions

Example:
Write cot–1 1 x > 1 in the simplest form.
2
x-1

Solution:
Let x = sec θ, then x-1
2

sec2 θ -1
= tan θ
-1 1 -1 -1
Therefore, cot 2
= cot (cot θ) = θ = sec x,
x-1
which is the simplest form.
Graph of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Graph of sin-1 function

Graph of cos-1 function

Graph of tan-1 function

Graph of cot-1 function

Graph of sec-1 function

Graph of cosec-1 function

 MATRICES

Introduction

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The

numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.

We denote matrices by capital letters.

Suppose that we wish to express the information of possession of notebooks and

pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which is as follows:

Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens

Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens

Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens

Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:

15 6 First Row

10 2 Second Row

13 5 Third Row

First Second
column column
In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute,
rows of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute,
columns of the matrix. Thus, the above matrice has 3 rows and 2 columns

Order of a matrix

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply

m × n matrix (read as an m by n matrix).

Number of elements in a matrix is the product of the number of rows and

column

In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:

a 11 a 12 a 13 a 14 a15
a 21 a 22
a 23 a 24 a 25
a 31 a 32
a 33 a 34 a35
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 a m4 a m5
mxn

or A = [aij ]m × n , 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
In general aij , is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call

it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be

equal to mn

NOTE

We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or functions
taking real values.

Example

Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women

workers in three factories I, II and III

Men workers Women workers

I 30 25

II 25 311

III 27 26

Represent the above information in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix. What does the

entry in the third row and second column represent?

Solution

The information is represented in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix as follows:

30 25

A= 25 31

27 26

The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women

workers in factory III.

Example

If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?

Solution

We know that if a matrix is of order m × n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find

all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of

natural numbers, whose product is 8. Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8),

(8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4) Hence, possible orders are 1 × 8, 8 ×1, 4 × 2, 2 × 4
Types of Matrices

Column matrix :

A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.

0

1/2
For example, A= is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
-1

In general, A = [a ij ]m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.

Row matrix :

A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

For example, B =
[ 4 -6 1/2 7
[ is a row matrix.

In general, B = [b ij ]1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.

Square matrix :

A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is

said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix

if m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.

3 1
0 2
2x2
Diagonal matrix :

A square matrix B = [b ij ]m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non

diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [b ij ]m × m is said to be a

diagonal matrix if b ij = 0, when i ≠ j.

1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 3

Scalar matrix :

A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [b ij ]n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if

b ij = 0, when i ≠ j

b ij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.

2 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2

Identity matrix

A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero

is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [a ij ]n × n is

a n 1 if 0 if identity matrix, if
 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Zero matrix :

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

Equality of matrices

Two matrices A = [a ij ] and B = [b ij] are said to be equal if

(i) they are of the same order

(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is

aij = bij for all i and j.

2 0 2 0
and are equal matrices but
3 1 3 1

3 2 3 1
and are not equal matrices.
0 1 0 2

Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

 Operations on Matrices

Addition of matrices
Addition of a matrix can only be done when they have the same order

Addition can be done by adding the corresponding elements of the

matrix

2 0 6 2
A= and B =
3 1 3 5

C=A+B

2+6 0+2
C=
3+3 1+5

C= 8 2
6 6

In general, if A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say

m × n. Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a

matrix C = [cij ]m × n , where cij = aij + bij , for all possible values of i and j.
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if

A = [aij ]m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which
is obtained by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.

5 2 10 4
2X =
4 6 8 12

Negative of a matrix

The negative of a matrix is denoted by –A. We define –A = (–1) A.

Difference of matrices

If A = [a ij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n, then

difference A – B is defined as a matrix D = [dij ], where d ij = a ij – b ij , for all value

of i and j. In other words, D = A – B = A + (–1) B, that is sum of the matrix A and

the matrix – B.

Example

If A and B are two matrices. Then find subtraction of matrices A and B.

3 5 1 3
A= B=
9 8 8 9
Solution

3 5 _ 1 3
A-B=
9 8 8 9

3 -1 5-3
A-B=
9-8 8-9

2 2
A-B=
1 -1

Properties of matrix addition

Commutative Law

If A = [a ij ], B = [b ij ] are matrices of the same order, say m × n,

then A + B = B + A.

Associative Law
For any three matrices A = [aij ], B = [bij ], C = [c ij ] of the same order, say m × n, (A

+ B) + C = A + (B + C).

Existence of additive identity

Let A = [a ij ] be an m × n matrix and O be an m × n zero matrix,

then A + O = O + A = A.

In other words, O is the additive identity for matrix addition.

The existence of additive inverse

Let A = [a ij ]m × n be any matrix, then we have another matrix as – A = [– a ij ]m × n

such that A + (– A) = (– A) + A= O. So– A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.

Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix

(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB,

(ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A

(iii) k (A + B) = k ([a ij ] + [bij ])

= k [a ij + bij ] = [k (a ij + b ij )] = [(k aij ) + (k b ij )]

= [k a ij ] + [k b ij ] = k [a ij ] + k [b ij ] = kA + kB

(iv) (k + l) A = (k + l) [aij]

= [(k + l) a ] + [k a ij ] + [l a ij ] = k [aij ] + l [a ij ] = k A + l A

Multiplication of matrices

for multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A

should be equal to the number of rows in B.

for getting the elements of the product matrix, we take rows of A and

columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.

Let A = [a ij ] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk ] be an n × p matrix.

Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of

order m × p.
 REMARK

If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined.In particular, if both A and B

are square matrices of the same order, then both AB and BA are defined.

Properties of multiplication of matrices

Associative law

For any three matrices A, B and C. We have (AB) C = A (BC), whenever both

sides of the equality are defined.

Distributive law

For three matrices A, B and C.

(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC

(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.

The existence of multiplicative identity

For every square matrix A, there exist an identity matrix of same order such

that IA = AI = A.
 Transpose of a Matrix

If A = [aij ] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging

the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the

matrix A is denoted by A′ or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij ]m × n , then A′ =

[aji ]n × m .

8 2 8 6
A= A’ =
6 6 2 6

Properties of transpose of the matrices

(i) (A′)′ = A,

(ii) (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)

(iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′

(iv) (A B)′ = B′ A′

Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

A square matrix A = [a ij ] is said to be symmetric if A′ = A, that is, [a ij ] = [a ji ]

for all possible values of i and j.

A square matrix A = [a ij ] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if A′ = – A, that is

a ji = – a ij for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we have aii = – a ii .

Therefore 2a ii = 0 or a ii = 0 for all i’s.

This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are

zero.

0 e f
B= -e 0 g is a skew symmetric matrix as B′= –B
-f -g 0

Theorem 1

For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric matrix

and A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.

Proof :

Let B = A + A′, then

B′ = (A + A′)′
= A′ + (A′)′ (as (A + B)′ = A′ + B′)
= A′ + A (as (A′)′ = A)

= A + A′ (as A + B = B + A)
=B

Therefore B = A + A′ is a symmetric matrix

Now let C = A – A′

C′ = (A – A′)′ = A′ – (A′)′
= A′ – A
=– (A – A′) = – C

Therefore C = A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.

Theorem 2

Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew

symmetric matrix.

Proof :

Let A be a square matrix, then we can write

A= 1 (A+ A’) + 1 (A- A’)

2 2

From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A′) is a symmetric matrix and (A – A′)

is a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA)′ = kA′,

it follows that 1 (A+ A’) is symmetric matrix and 1

2 (A- A’)
2
is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square matrix can be expressed as the

sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

 Invertible Matrices

If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B

of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix
-1
of A and it is denoted by A . In that case A is said to be invertible.

Theorem 3

(Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Proof :

Let A = [a ij ] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two

inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.

Since B is the inverse of A

AB = BA = I

Since C is also the inverse of A

AC = CA = I

Thus
B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4

-1 -1 -1
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB) = B A .

Proof

From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have

(AB) (AB)-1 = 1
A-1(AB) (AB)-1= A-1I
(A-1A) B (AB)-1 = A-1
-1 -1
IB (AB) = A
B (AB)-1= A-1
B-1 B (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
I (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
 DETERMINANT

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Introduction

A system of linear equations like

a1 x + b1 y = c

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a2 x + b2 y = c
can be represented as
a1 b1 x c1
a2 b 2 =
y c2

The number (a 1 b2– a 2 b 1) which determines uniqueness of solution is

associated
a1 b1
a2 b 2
with the matrix A = and is called the determinant of A or det A.
Remarks
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(i) For matrix A, |A| is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.

(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.

Determinant of a matrix of order one

Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be

equal to a

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Determinant of a matrix of order two

Let A= a1 b1 be a matrix of order 2 × 2,

a2 b 2

then the determinant of A is defined as:

det (A) = |A| = ∆ = a1 b2- a 2b1

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Example:
2 4
Evaluate
-1 4

Solution

We have 2 4
= 2(4) – 4(–1) = 8 + 4 = 12
-1 4

Determinant of a matrix of order 3 × 3

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a11 a12 a13

|A| = a21 a22 a 23
a31 a32 a 33

|A| = a11 a 22a33– a 11 a32 a23– a12 a21 a 33+ a 12 a31 a 23+ a 13a21 a32– a13 a31 a 22
Remarks

(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or

column which contains maximum number of zeros.

(i + j)

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(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (–1) , we can multiply by +1 or –

1 according as (i + j) is even or odd.

2 2 1 1
(iii) Let A = B=
4 0 2 0

Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also |A| = 0 – 8 = – 8 and |B| = 0 – 2 = – 2.

In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n,

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then | A| = kn | B |, where n = 1, 2, 3

Example:
1 2 4
Evaluate the determinant ∆ = -1 3 0
4 1 0

Solution

Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third

column (C3 ), we get

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∆= 4 (–1 – 12) – 0 + 0 = – 52
Area of a Triangle

The area of a triangle whose vertices are (x 1 , y 1 ), (x 2 , y 2 ) and (x 3 , y 3 ),

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can be written in the form of a determinant as

x1 y 1 1
∆ = _1 x 2 y 2 1
2
x3 y 3 1

Remarks

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(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the

determinant in (1).

(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for

calculation.

(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.

Minors and Cofactors

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Definition:

Minor of an element aij of a determinant is the determinant obtained by

deleting its ith row and j th column in which element a ij lies. Minor of an

element a ij is denoted by M ij .
Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n ≥ 2) is a determinant of

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order n – 1.

Definition:

Cofactor of an element a ij , denoted by A ij is defined by Aij = (–1)i + j M ij , where

M ij is minor of a ij .

Example:
1 2 3

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Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant ∆ = 4 5 6
7 8 9

Solution

Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M23 is given by
1 2
M 23 =
7 8

= 8 – 14 = – 6 (obtained by deleting R 2 and C 3 in ∆).

Example:
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1 -2
Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant 4 3
Solution

Minor of the element aij is Mij

Here a11 = 1. So M 11 = Minor of a 11 = 3

M12 = Minor of the element a 12= 4

M21 = Minor of the element a 21 = –2

M22 = Minor of the element a 22= 1

Now, cofactor of a ij is A ij . So

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A 11 = (–1)1 + 1 M 11 = (–1)2 (3) = 3

A12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = (–1)3 (4) = – 4

A 21 = (–1)2 + 1 M21 = (–1)3 (–2) = 2

A22 = (–1)2 + 2 M 22= (–1)4 (1) = 1

NOTE:

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If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other

row (or column), then their sum is zero.

Adjoint and Inverse

of a Matrix

Adjoint of a matrix

The adjoint of a square matrix A = [a ij ]n × n is defined as the transpose of the

matrix [A ij ]n × n , where A is the cofactor of the element a ij . Adjoint of the

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matrix A is denoted by adj A.

Let
a11 a 12 a 13
A= a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
 a11 a 12 a 13

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Then adj A =Transpose of a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33

a11 a 21 a 31
a 12 a 22 a 32
=
a 13 a 23 a 33

Remarks

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For a square matrix of order 2, given by

a11 a 12
A=
a 21 a 22

The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a11 and a12 and by changing signs
of a12 and a21 , i.e.,

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Theorem 1

If A be any given square matrix of order n, then

A(adj A) = (adj A) A = |A|I

where I is the identity matrix of order n

Singular matrix

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A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0.

1 2
For example, the determinant of matrix A = is zero
4 8

Hence A is a singular matrix.

Nonsingular matrix

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A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if |A| ≠ 0

Theorem 2

If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are also

nonsingular matrices of the same order.

Theorem 3

The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their respective

determinants, that is, |AB| =|A| |B| , where A and B are square matrices of the same

order
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Remarks

In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then |adj(A)| = |A| n-1 .

Theorem 3

A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.

 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

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Consistent system:

A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one or more) exists.

Inconsistent system

A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution does not exist.

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Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix

Consider the system of equations

a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z = d 1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2

a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3

a 1 b1 c 1 x d1
Let A= a2 b2 c2 X= B=
y d2
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a 3 b3 c3 z d3

Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,

a 1 b1 c 1 x d1
a2 b2 c2 y d2
=
a 3 b3 c3 z d3
Case I

If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now

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AX = B

or A–1 (AX) = A–1 B (premultiplying by A–1)

or (A–1A) X = A–1 B (by associative property)

or I X = A–1 B

or X = A–1 B

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This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations

as inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is

known as Matrix Method.

Case 2

If A is a singular matrix, then |A| = 0.

In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.

If (adj A) B ≠ O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the

system of equations is called inconsistent.

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If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent

according as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.

 APPLICATION
OF DERIVATIVES

Introduction

Rate of change of quantity

Consider a function y = f(x), the rate of change of a function is defined as-
dy/dx = f'(x)

Further, if two variables x and y are varying to another variable, say if x = f(t),
and y = g(t), then using Chain Rule, we have:
dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)

where dx/dt is not equal to 0.

Example
Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to its
radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution
The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = πr . Therefore, the rate of
change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by

d A d (π r) 2
= = 2πr
dr dr
dA
When r = 5 cm, =10π
dr

Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of 10π cm2/s.
dy/dx is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if
y decreases

as x increases.

Example

The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is given

by R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by marginal

revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the number
of items sold at an instant.

Solution

Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of units sold,

we have Marginal Revenue (MR) dR/dx =6x +36

When x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is ` 66.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition 1:
Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f. Then f
is said to be

(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 ) < f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ I.

(ii) decreasing on I, if x1 , x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 ) < f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ I.

(iii) constant on I, if f(x) = c for all x ∈ I, where c is a constant.

(iv) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 ) ≥ f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ I.

(v) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 ) > f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ I.

Definition 2:
Let x0 be a point in the domain of definition of a real valued function f. Then f

is said to be increasing, decreasing at x0 if there exists an open interval I

containing x0 such that f is increasing, decreasing, respectively, in I.

Example
Show that the function given by f(x) = 7x – 3 is increasing on R.
Solution
Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in R. Then
x1 < x2 ⇒ 7x1 < 7x2 ⇒ 7x1 – 3 < 7x2 – 3 ⇒ f(x1 ) < f(x2 )

Thus, by Definition 1, it follows that f is strictly increasing on R.

Theorem 1:
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b). Then

(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f′(x) > 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)

(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f′(x) < 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f′(x) = 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)

REMARK

There is a more generalised theorem, which states that if f¢(x) > 0 for x in an
interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in the interval, then f is

increasing. Similarly, if f¢(x) < 0 for x in an interval excluding the end points and

f is continuous in the interval, then f is decreasing.

Example

Prove that the function given by f(x) = cos x is

(a) decreasing in (0, π)

(b) increasing in (π, 2π), and

(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2π).

Solution

Note that f′(x) = – sin x

(a) Since for each x ∈ (0, π), sin x > 0, we have f′(x) < 0 and so f is decreasing in
(0, π).
(b) Since for each x ∈ (π, 2π), sin x < 0, we have f′(x) > 0 and so f is increasing in

(π, 2π).
(c) Clearly by (a) and (b) above, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2π).

Maxima and Minima

Definition 3:

Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then

(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that

( ) f c f x > ( ) , for all x ∈ I. The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f in

I and the point c is called a point of maximum value of f in I. .

(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f(c) < f(x), for all x ∈ I. The number f(c), in this case, is called the minimum value

of f in I and the point c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.

(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that

f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.

The number f(c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c

is called an extreme point.

Definition 4:
Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain of f.
Then

(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that

f(c) ≥ f(x), for all x in (c – h, c + h), x ≠ c
The value f(c) is called the local maximum value of f.

(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that

f(c) ≤ f(x), for all x in (c – h, c + h)

The value f(c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Theorem 2:
Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c ∈ I be any point. If
f has a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f′(c) = 0 or f is not

differentiable at c.

Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test):

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a

critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if f ′

(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) < 0 at

every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
maxima.

(ii) If f′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if f

′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) > 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local

minima.
(iii) If f′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a
point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called

point of inflection

Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test)

Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c ∈ I. Let f be twice

differentiable at c. Then

(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f′(c) = 0 and f″(c) < 0 The value f (c) is local

maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ′ c = ( ) 0 and f″(c) > 0 In this case, f (c) is

local minimum value of f .

(iii) The test fails if f′(c) = 0 and f″(c) = 0.

Theorem 5
Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the absolute
maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute

minimum value and attains it at least once in I.

Theorem 6

Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any interior

point of I. Then

(i) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.

(ii) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c. In view of the above
results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute maximum and/or

absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval [a, b].

Working Rule
Step 1:
Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either

( ) 0 x = or f is not differentiable.
Step 2:
Take the end points of the interval.

Step 3:

At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4:

Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in

Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of f

and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .

Example
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f(x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution

We have

f(x) = 2x 3 – 15x 2 + 36x + 1 or

f′(x) = 6x 2 – 30x + 36 = 6(x – 3) (x – 2)

Note that f′(x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the

interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5.

3 2
So f(1) = 2(1 ) – 15(1 ) + 36(1) + 1 = 24
f(2) = 2(2 3) – 15(2 2) + 36(2) + 1 = 29

f(3) = 2(3 3) – 15(3 2) + 36(3) + 1 = 28

3
f(5) = 2(5 ) – 15(5 2) + 36(5) + 1 = 56

Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at

x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.
 Application of
Integrals

Introduction
We will learn how to use integrals to calculate the area under basic
curves, such as lines, circles, parabolas, and ellipses (in their standard
forms). Plus, we'll figure out how to find the area enclosed by these
curves!
Area under Simple Crves
Let’s look at a super easy and fun way to figure out the area between the
curve y=f(x), the x-axis, and the lines x=a and x=b.
Imagine the area under the curve is made up of tons of really skinny vertical
strips stacked next to each other. That’s basically how we break it down!
Y

y = f(x)
R
S

y
x=a x=b

O
X’ X
P dx Q
Y’
Consider an arbitrary strip of height y and width dx, then dA (area of the
elementary strip)= ydx, where, y = f(x).

This area is called the "elementary area," and it sits at a random spot
within the region, determined by some value of x between a and b.
 Area Under a Curve and X-Axis
To find the area under a curve y=f(x) between two points x=a and x=b

we use:
b
Area=∫f(x) dx
a

Area in Terms of Y-Axis

When the curve is given as x=f(y), and we want to find the area between
y=c and y=d
we use:
d
Area=∫f(y) dy
c

Symmetry: A Handy Trick!

If a curve is symmetric about the y-axis, you can calculate the area of one
side and double it.

Area= 2 *∫f(y) dy

Important Points to Remember

Non-overlapping areas: If two areas don’t overlap, you can simply add
them.

Negative areas: Always make sure to convert negative areas (below x-axis) to
positive if you're calculating total area.

Trick for symmetric curves: If the curve is symmetric, calculate one side
and multiply by 2. This saves a lot of time.
 We can imagine the total area (A) of the region between the x-axis, the lines x = a,
(x = b, and the curve y = f(x) as the sum of all the tiny elementary areas of thin
strips spread across the region PQRSP.
Y
b
We express b
b
A =a dA = ydx = f(x)dx y=d
a a

x
The area A of the region bounded by the dy
curve x = g (y), y-axis and the lines y = c, y = d x = g(y)
is given by
y=c
d d O X
A = xdy = g(y)dy X’
c c
Y’
Note:

If the curve lies below the x-axis, meaning f(x) < 0 Y

from x=ax to x=bx, the area bounded by the curve,
the x-axis, and the lines x=ax and x=bx will come
out negative.
But don’t worry! We’re only interested in the
numerical value of the area. So, if the area is X’ X
O x=b
negative, we just take its absolute value. x=a

x)
f(
In other words, we take the absolute value
=
y

b
i.e., f(x)dx Y’
a
Y

Note
A2
If part of the curve is above the x-axis and part
x=b is below, with A1<0 and A2>0, the total area AAA
is given by:
X’ X A=∣A1∣+A2
O
x=a

This means we take the absolute value of the

A1
negative area and add it to the positive area.
Y’
Important Tricks
Use symmetry: It simplifies many problems.
Always sketch the graph: It helps visualize which area you're
calculating.
Check boundaries carefully: Misreading limits can lead to wrong
answers.
Memorize common integrals: Power functions, exponentials, and
trigonometric functions show up a lot

1. Use Graphs to Simplify

Always draw a graph of the curves involved before jumping into solving
integrals. This gives you a clear idea of which curve is above and which
is below, as well as the limits of integration.

Identify whether the curve lies above or below the x-axis to correctly
assign positive or negative values to areas

2. Special Case: Modulus Functions

When dealing with a modulus function, like y=∣x | , split the integral
at the point where the modulus changes sign (usually at x=0 to x=a).

3. Breaking Down Complex Areas

For composite shapes (like curves that create semi-circles, triangles,
etc.), calculate the areas of simple shapes individually and then add
them up.
For example, if a curve forms a part of a circle, use the formula for
the area of a sector instead of integrating.

4. Use Substitution Wisely

When a direct integration seems tricky, try substitution to simplify it.
Let’s see few examples
Y
Question
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x A
between x = 0 and x = 2π
Solution
B
X’ X
O D
Area Required = Area OAB + Area BCD
x = π/2
x = 2π
C
Area of OAB
x = 3π/2
π
= y dx Y’
0
y -> sin x
π
= sin x dx
0
= [-cos]0π
= -[cosπ - cos 0]
= -[-1-1] = 2

Area of BCD
2π
= y dx
π
2π
= sin x dx
π
= [-cos]2π
π
= -[cos2π- cosπ]
= -[-1-1] = -2

Since Area cannot be negative,

So, area of BCD = 2

Hence,
Area required = Area OAB + Area BCD
=2+2
= 4 square unit
Question Y
2 2 2
Find the area enclosed by the circle x + y = a
B (0,a)
Solution
y’
The whole area enclosed by the given A(a,0)

X’ X
circle = 4 O dx

As the region AOBA lies in the first

quadrant, y is taken as positive.

Integrating, we get the whole area enclosed Y’

by the given circle

(area of the region AOBA bounded by the curve, x-axis

and the ordinates x = 0 and x = a)

[as the circle is symmetrical about both x-axis and y-axis]

a
= 4 ydx (taking vertical strips)
0
a
=4 a2- x2dx
0

Since x + y = a gives y= -+ a2 - x2

=4 x a2- x2 + a2 sin-1 x
2 2 2
|
|

2
= 4 a 0 a2 sin-1 0 = 4 a2 π = πa Ans
|

2 2 2
|

2
|

|
|

Question
Find the area of the region included between the parabola y = 3x2and the
4
|

line 3x – 2y + 12 = 0.

Solution
 Y
Solving the equations of the given curves y = 3x 2 C

|
4
and 3x – 2y + 12 = 0, we get
3x2 – 6x – 24 = 0 ⇒ (x – 4) (x + 2) = 0
y = 3x
A 4

|
(-2,3)
⇒ x = 4, x = –2 which give y = 12, y = 3 X
O B 2

So, the required area = area of ABC 3x-2y+12=0

4 4
= 12 +3x dx - 3x2dx
-2 4
|

-2 2
4 4
= 6x+ 3x2 - 3x3 = 27 sq units Ans
|

12 -2
|

4 2

Question
Find the area of the region bounded by y = √x and y = x.

Solution
Y
Equations of curve y = √x and line y = x

Solving the equations y = √x ⇒ y2 = x and y = x, we get y = √x

x2= x
x2– x = 0
x(x – 1) = 0
X’ O X
So, x = 0, 1 x=1

Now, the required area of the shaded

region get
1 1 y=x Y’
= √x dx - x dx
0 0
1
= 2/3[x 3/2
]1 - 1/2[x 2 ]0
0
3/2 2
= 2/3[(1) - 0] - 1/2[(1) -0]

= 2/3 - 1/2 => 1/6

Therefore, the required area = 1/6 sq.units.

Question
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x3 and y = x + 6
and x = 0.
Solution
So, the curves are y = x3, y = x + 6 and x = 0
Y
On solving the equations
y = x3 and y = x + 6,
we have y=x+6

x3 = x + 6
x3 – x – 6 = 0 O
X’ X
x=2
x2(x – 2) + 2x(x – 2) + 3(x – 2) = 0
(x – 2) (x 2 + 2x + 3) = 0

y=x3 Y’
It’s seen that x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
has no real roots

So, x = 2 is the only root for the above equation

Now, the required area of the shaded region is given by

2 2
= (x+6)dx - x 3 dx
0 0
2
= [x 2 /2 + 6x ] - 1/4[x 4]0

= (4/2 + 12) - (0+0) - 1/4[(2)4 - 0]

= 14 - 1/4 * 16

= 14 - 4 = 10 sq. units
Get Ready For some PYQ’s

Question:
Find the area bounded by y = x2, the x-axis and the lines x = -1 and x = 1
CBSE(2020)
Solution:
0 1 Y
y1 dx + y2 dx
-1 0 C
0 1
x2dx + x2 dx
-1 0
A
12
x dx
-1 1 X
-1 O
1
[x3/3]-1 x = -1
x=1
3
1/3 -(-1)/3

1/3 + 1/3

2/3 sq.units
 Differential
Equations

Introduction
What is Differential Equations
It is a equation related to a function and its derivatives.

y = f(x) then g(x) = dy

dx
Ordinary Differential Equation
It is basically derivative of the dependent variable with respect to one
independent variable.
Example: dy = ex
dx
Order of a Differential Equation
So, the highest order derivatives in the equation is known as order of the
equation
Example:
2
d y + y = 0 has order 2
dx 2
It is basically derivative of the dependent variable with respect to one
independent variable.

Degree of a Differential Equation

It is nothing just the highest derivative present in the equation.

Example:
2 2 3
(d y) + (dy) = 0 has degree 2
dx2 dx
It is basically derivative of the dependent variable with respect to one
independent variable.
Note: Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always
positive integers.

Question:
Determine the order and degree of the following equations:

1. dy - cos x = 0
dx
Solution
The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is dy/dx ,
so its order is one. It is a polynomial equation in y′ and the highest power
raised to dy/dx is one, so its degree is one.

2 y’
2. y’’’ + y + e = 0

Solution
The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is y′′′ , so
its order is three. The given differential equation is not a polynomial
equation in its derivatives and so its degree is not defined.

Solutions to Remember
General Solution: A solution that contains arbitrary constants
(representing a family of solutions).

Particular Solution: A specific solution obtained by assigning values to

the constants in the general solution.

Example of General Solution

Question:
x
Find the general solution of the differential equation dy/dx = e.

Solution:
 y=∫ex dx [By integrating we get]
y =ex +C
Where C is the constant of integration.

Question

Find the differential equation of all non - vertical lines in a plane.

Solution:

We know that, the equation of all non- vertical lines are y = mx + c

On differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy/dx = m
Again, on differentiating w.r.t. x, we have

d2y/ dx2 = 0
Thus, the required equation is
d 2y/ dx2 = 0

Question
Given that dy/dx = yex and x = 0, y = e.
Find the value of y when x = 1.
Solution:
dy/dx = yex
⇒∫dy/y = ∫exdx
⇒ log y = ex+ c

Substituting x = 0 and y = e,
0
we get log e = e + c, i.e., c = 0 (i.e. loge = 1)

Therefore, log y = ex

Now, substituting x = 1 in the above,

we get log y = e ⇒ y = ex
Solution of differential equations by different methods:
separation of variables ->

If a differential equation can be expressed as:

dx/dy​= g(x) h(y)

Then just separate the variable and

then integrate both sides

dy / h(y) ​= g(x)dx

Let’s understand this by an example:

Question:

Solve the equation dy/dx = y/x​.

Solution:
dy/y ​= dx/x​

Integrating both sides

ln∣y∣=ln∣x∣+ c

y=xc

Linear Differential Equations ->

A linear first-order differential equation is of the form:

dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x)

Then multiply through by an integrating factor:

μ(x)=e∫P(x)dx

Let’s understand this by an example:

Question:
Solve the differential equation dy/dx - y/x = 0
Solution:
The equation is of the type dy/dx + Py = Q, which is a linear
differential equation.

Now I.F. = e∫ = x
1/xdx

Therefore, solution of the given differential equation is

x dy/dx - y = 0
d(xy)/dx = 0
Integrating both sides
xy= c
Thus, y = c/x

Homogeneous Function
A function F(x,y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if

F(λx, λy ) = λ’’ F(x,y) for some non zero constant λ

Homogeneous Differential Equation

A differential equation which can be expressed in the form dy/dx = F(x,y)

or dx/dy = G(x,y), where F(x,y) and G(x,y) are homogeneous functions of
degree zero.

To solve homogeneous differential equation of type dy/dx = F(x,y)

Make substitution
y = vx

To solve homogeneous differential equation of type dy/dx = G(x,y)

Make substitution
y = vy
 Chalo ab kr k dikhao
(Practice Questons)
Question:
y-x
Find the solution of dy/dx = 2
Solution:

Given differential equation,

y-x y
dy/dx = 2 => dy/dx = 2 / 2x

On separating the variables, we have

dy/2y = dx/2x => 2-ydy = 2-xdx

Now , integrating both sides, we get

-y
2 dy = 2-xdx
-y
-2 / log 2
= -2-x /log 2 +c
-y -x
=> -2 = -2 + c log 2
-y
=> -2 + 2-x = c log 2
2-x- 2-y = k Where c log 2 = k
Thus, the solution of the differential equation is 2-x - 2-y - k

Question:
Solve: ydx – xdy = x2ydx.
Solution:
y dx - x2dy = xdy
y(1 - x2)dx = xdy
(1 - x2) dx = dy/y => (1/x - x ) dx = dy/y
x
Integrating both sides we get
(1 - x ) dx = dy
x y
log x - x2 = log y + log c
2
log x2 - x = log yc => log x + log c = x2 /2
2
=> log x/yc = x2/2
 2
=> x/yc = e x /2
2
=> yc/x = e-x /2
2
yc = xe-x /2
2
y = 1/c.xe-x /2

Thus, the required solution is y

2
y = kxe-x /2

Question:
For the differential equation given below, indicate its order and degree
( if defined)
3 3
d y - sin (d y) = 0
dx4 dx3
Solution:

d4y - sin( d3y) = 0

dx4 dx3

Highest order of derivative = 4

So, order will be 4.

Since d3y/dx3 is sin(d3y/dx3)

It is not a polynomial equation

So, degree is not defined.

Question:
The general solution of a differential equation of the type
dx + P1x = Q1 is
Solution:
dx + P1x = Q1 is

IF = e P1 dy

General solution is
x (IF) = (Q1 * IF) dy + c

P1 dy P1 dy
xe = (Q1e ) dy + C
Question:
Find the general solution of dy/dx - 3 = sin 2x.
Solution:
AS we can see It’s a first order linear differential equation
Here P = -3 And Q = sin 2x
So, -3dx
Integrating factor will be = e Pdx = e = e-3x
Now,
y * I.F = Q.IF.dx + c
=> y. e-3x = sin2x . e-3x dx + c

Now let,
I = sin2x. e-3x dx
I = sin2x . e-3x dx - (D(sin2x). e-3xdx) dx
I = sin2x . e -3xdx - (2(cos2x). e-3xdx) dx
-3
I = sin2x . e-3x dx - 2 (cos2x). e-3xdx) dx
-3 3
I= e-3x sin2x - 2/3[cos2x. e-3xdx - (D(cos2x). e-3x /-3) dx
-3
-3x -3x
I = e-3x sin2x - 2/3[cos2x. e dx - (2sin2x). e /-3) dx
-3
-3x
I = e-3x sin2x - 2/9[cos2x. e dx - 4/9 sin2x. e-3x /-3 dx
-3
I+4/9I = e-3x sin2x . 2/9e-3xcos2x - 4/9I
-3
-3x
13I/9 = -1/9[ 3e sin2x + 2e-3x cos2x]

I = -1/13e-3x [3sin2x + 2cos2x]

Hence, the equation becomes

I = -1/13e-3x [3sin2x + 2cos2x] + c

I = -1/13e-3x [3sin2x + 2cos2x] + c + e3x

 So lastly,
The required answer is

y = -[ 3sin2x + 2cos2x ] + c . e3x

13

Question:
-y
Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x + 1)dy/dx = 2e - 1,
given that y = 0 when x = 0
Solution:
-y
(x + 1)dy = 2e - 1
The variables are separable
dy = dx
2e-y -1 x+1
Integrating both sides
dy = dx
2e-y -1 x+1

dy = log( x + 1 ) + c
2/ey -1

dy = log(x + 1) + C
2/e y -1
y
e

e y dy = log(x + 1) + C
2 - ey

Putting t = 2 - e y

dt = -e y dy

y
-dt = e dy

Putting value of t and dt in equation

-dt/t = log(x+1) + c
 -log t = log( x + 1) + c

Putting back value of t

y
-log(2 - e ) = log( x + 1) + c
y
0 = log(x + 1) = log( 2 -e ) + c
y
log(x + 1) = log( 2 -e ) + c = 0

Given y = 0 when x = 0

Putting x = 0 and y = 0 in (1)

log ( 0 + 1 ) + log (2 - e0) + C = 0

log 1 + log (2 - 1 ) + C = 0

log 1 + log 1 + C = 0

0+0+C=0

C=0

Putting value of C in (1)

y
log( x + 1 ) + log(2 - e ) + 0 = 0

log( x + 1 ) + log ( 2 - ey) = 0

y
log( 2 - e ) = - log ( x + 1 )
y -1
log( 2 - e ) = log (x + 1 )

log ( 2 - ey) = log ( 1/x + 1 )

y y
2 - e = 1/x + 1 e = 2x + 1/ x + 1

Taking log both sides

y = log| 2x + 1 | , x = -1
x+1
 Time for PYQ’s

Question:
The sum of the order and the degree of the differential equation
3
d 2y/dx2+ (dy/dx) = sin y is:
Solution: (CBSE 2023)

So the order of the equation is 2

and degree of the differential equation is 1
Therefore the sum of order and degree will be
(2+1) = 3

Question:
The general solution of the Differential equation x dy - (1 + x2)dx = dx is:

Solution: (CBSE 2023)

x dy = dx + (1 + x2) dx
x dy = ( 2 + x2) dx
dy = ( 2 + x2) dx / x
x
Integrating both sides

dy = ( 2 + x ) dx
x
So, y = (2 ln|x| + x2)dx
2
Thus, y = 2 log x + x2 + C

Question:
Find the particular solution of the differential equation dy/dx + sec2x.y = tanx. sec2 x,
given that y(0) = 0
Solution: (CBSE 2019)
Here, P = sec2 x and Q = tan x . sec2 x
Pdx sec xdx tanx
I.F = e => e => e
y . etanx= etanx . tan x. sec2x dx
 Putting tan x = t
sec2x dx = dt
y . etanx = et . t. dt
y . etanx= t etdt - (d/dt.t et dt) dt
y . etanx = tet - et dt
y.etanx= t.et- et
y.etanx= et( t - 1 ) + C

y.etanx= et( tanx - 1 ) + C

So the value of y is,

y = tanx - 1 + C.e- tanx

Question:
Solve the following Differential Equation
x dy/dx = y - x tan (y/x)
Solution: (CBSE 2019)
dy/dx = y/x - tan (y/x)
So, it’s a homogeneous equation,
Now,
Put y = v x (v = y/x)
=> dy/dx = v + x dv/dx

v + x dv/dx = v - tan v
dv /tan v = -dx/x
Integrating both sides
dV/tan v = -dx/x
cot v dv = - 1/x dx
log | sinv | = - log | x | + log C
Putting value of v in the equation
log | sin y/x | + log | x | = log C

log | x sin y/x | = log C

 Taking antilog both sides
x sin( y/x ) = C (General Solution)

x sin( y/x) = C/x = y/x = sin-1 C/x

So the value of y is :
y = x sin-1 (C/x)

Question:
Show that the function y = ax + 2a2 is a solution of the differential
equation 2(dy) + x(dy) - y = 0
dx dx
Solution: (CBSE 2020)
y = ax +2a2
dy = a(1) + 0 = a
dx
LHS 2(a) + x(a) - (ax - 2a2)s

2a2+ ax -ax - 2a2

0 = RHS
Hence Proved
Question:
dy = ex + y Find the general solution
dx (CBSE 2020)
Solution:
y
dy = ex . e
dx
1 dy = ex dx
y
e
Integrating both sides
-y
e dy = ex dx
e-y= ex + C1
-1
-y
-e = e x+ C1 (C = -C1)
-1
x -y
e = e +C
Thus the general solution is:
-y
ex = e + C
 LINEAR
PROGRAMMING

Introduction

Problems which seek to maximise (or, minimise) profit (or, cost) form a general

class of problems called optimisation problems. Thus, an optimisation problem

may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of resources
etc. A special but a very important class of optimisation problems is linear

programming problem.
Linear programming problems are of much interest because of their wide
applicability in industry, commerce, management science etc.

Terms of Linear Programming Problem

Objective function:
Linear function Z = ax + by, where a, b are constants, which has to be maximised

or minimized is called a linear objective function. Variables x and y are called

decision variables.

Constraints:
The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the variables of a linear

programming problem are called constraints. The conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are

called non-negative restrictions.

Optimisation problem:
A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function (say of two

variables x and y) subject to certain constraints as determined by a set of linear

inequalities is called an optimisation problem.

Graphical method of solving linear programming problems

Let us graph the constraints stated as linear inequalities:

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

10 20 30 40 5060 70 80 90 100
 5x + y ≤ 100 ... (1)

x + y ≤ 60 ... (2)

x ≥ 0 ... (3)
y ≥ 0 ... (4)

Feasible region:

The common region determined by all the constraints including non-negative

constraints x, y ≥ 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible

region (or solution region) for the problem. In Fig, the region OABC (shaded) is
the feasible region for the problem.The region other than feasible region is called

an infeasible region.

Feasible solutions:
Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible

solutions of the constraints. Any point outside the feasible region is called an

infeasible solution.

Optimal (feasible) solution:

Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or

minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.

Now, we see that every point in the feasible region OABC satisfies all the
constraints as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely many points, it is

not evident how we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value

of the objective function

it is not evident how we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum

value of the objective function

Theorem 1
Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming problem

and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value

(maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints

described by linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point*
(vertex) of the feasible region.

Theorem 2
Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let Z = ax + by

be the objective function. If R is bounded**, then the objective function Z has

both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a corner
point (vertex) of R.

REMARK

If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function

may not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R. (By

Theorem 1).

Corner Point Method

This method of solving linear programming problem comprises of the following
steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its

corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of the

lines intersecting at that point.

2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m,

respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.

3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and

minimum values of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:

4. (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by

ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no

maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no

minimum value.

Example
Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Maximise Z = 4x + y ... (1)

subject to the constraints:

x + y ≤ 50 ... (2)
3x + y ≤ 90 ... (3)

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ... (4)
Solution

The shaded region in Figure is the feasible region determined by the system of

constraints (2) to (4). We observe that the feasible region OABC is bounded. So, we

now use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum value of Z. The
coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (30, 0), (20, 30) and (0,

50) respectively. Now we evaluate Z at each corner point.

Corner Corresponding
Point value of Z

(0,0) 0
(30,0) 120
(20,30) 110
(0,50) 50

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Hence, maximum value of Z is 120 at the point (30, 0).

Example

Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:

Minimise Z = 200 x + 500 y ... (1)

subject to the constraints:

x + 2y ≥ 10 ... (2)

3x + 4y ≤ 24 ... (3)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ... (4)

Solution

The shaded region in Figure is the feasible region ABC determined by the system
of constraints (2) to (4), which is bounded. The coordinates of corner points A, B

and C are (0,5), (4,3) and (0,6) respectively. Now we evaluate Z = 200x + 500y at
these points.

Corner Corresponding 11
10
Point value of Z 9
8
(0,5) 2500 7
6
(4,3) 2300 5
(0,6) 3000 4
3
2
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 Probability

Introduction

Probability is defined as the likelihood of an event to occur. It is

measured as the number of favourable events to occur from the total
number of events. It is to be noted that the probability of an event is
always 0 ≤ P(x) ≤ 1.

Conditional probability
If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a
random experiment, the conditional probability of the event E given that
F has occurred, i.e. P (E|F) is given by

P(E|F) = P(E ∩ F)/P(F), provided P(F) ≠ 0

Properties of conditional probability

Property 1:
P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1

Property 2:
If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event
of S such that P(F) is not equal to zero, then
 P((A ∪ B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F) – P((A ∩ B)|F)

Property 3:
P(E′|F) = 1 − P(E|F)

Example:

A family has two children. What is the probability that both

the children are ways given that at least one of them

Solution

Let b stand for boy and g for girl. The sample space of the

experiment is

S = {(b, b), (g, b), (b, g), (g, g)}

Let E and F denote the following events :

E : ‘both the children are boys’

F : ‘at least one of the child is a boy’

Then E = {(b,b)} and F = {(b,b), (g,b), (b,g)}

Now

E∩ F = {(b,. b)}

Thus. P(F)=3/4 and P(E∩F) =1/4

Therefore P(ElF) = (1/3)/(3/4) = 1/3

Multiplication Theorem on Probability

.
Let E and F be two events associated with a sample space S.
Clearly, the set E ∩ F denotes the event that both E and F have
occurred. In other words, E ∩ F denotes the simultaneous
occurrence of the events E and F.
The event E ∩ F is also written as EF. According to this rule, if E
and F are the events in a sample space, then;
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) P(F|E) = P(F) P(E|F)
where P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F) ≠ 0

The event E ∩ F is also written as EF. According to this rule, if E

and F are the events in a sample space, then;
P(E ∩ F) = P(E) P(F|E) = P(F) P(E|F)
where P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F) ≠ 0

for more than two events

P(E ∩ F ∩ G) = P(E) P(F|E) P(G|(E ∩ F)) = P(E) P(F|E) P(G|EF)

Similarly, the multiplication rule of probability can be extended for

four or more events.

Example:

Three 'cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of 52

well shuffled cards. What is the probability that first two cards are kings and

the third card drawn is an ace?

Solution
Let K denote the event that the card drawn is king and A be the event that

the card drawn is an ace. Clearly, we have to find P (KKA)

Now P(K) =
_
4
52

Also, P(K|K) is the probability of second king with the condition that one king

_
has already been drawn. Now there are three kings in (52 − 1) = 51 cards.
3
Therefore P(K|K) =
51
Lastly, P(A|KK) is the probability of third drawn card to be an ace, with the

condition that two kings have already been drawn. Now there are four aces in

left 50 cards.

Therefore P(A|KK) =
_
4
50

___
By multiplication law of probability, we have P(KKA) = P(K) P(K|K) P(A|KK)

4 3 4 2
X X =
52 51 50 5525

Independent Events
Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment, then E

and F are said to be independent if

P(E ∩ F) = P(E) . P (F)

Partition of a sample space

A set of events E1 , E2 , ..., En is said to represent a partition of the sample

space S if

(a) Ei ∩ Ej = φ, i ≠ j, i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
(b) E1 ∪ Ε2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S and

(c) P(Ei ) > 0 for all i = 1, 2, ..., n.

In other words, the events E1, E2, ..., En represent a partition of the sample

space S if they are pairwise disjoint, exhaustive and have nonzero probabilities.

Theorem of total probability

Let {E1 , E2 ,...,En } be a partition of the sample space S, and suppose that each

of the events E1 , E2 ,..., En has nonzero probability of occurrence. Let A be any

event associated with S, then

P(A) = P(E1 ) P(A|E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(A|E2 ) + ... + P(En ) P(A|En )

Example:
A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65 that

there will be strike, 0.80 that the construction job will be completed on time if

there is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time

if there is a strike. Determine the probability that the construction job will be

completed on time.

Solution

Let A be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B

be the event that there will be a strike. We have to find P(A).

We have

P(B) = 0.65, P(no strike) = P(B′) = 1 − P(B) = 1 − 0.65 = 0.35

P(A|B) = 0.32, P(A|B′) = 0.80

 Since events B and B′ form a partition of the sample space S, therefore, by

theorem on total probability, we have

P(A) = P(B) P(A|B) + P(B′) P(A|B′)

= 0.65 × 0.32 + 0.35 × 0.8

= 0.208 + 0.28 = 0.488

Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is

0.488.

Bayes’ Theorem
If E1 , E2 ,..., En are n non empty events which constitute a partition of sample

space S, i.e. E1 , E2 ,..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S and

A is any event of nonzero probability, then

P(Ei |A) = P(E i )P(A|Ej ) for any i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n

n
P(E j)P(A|Ej )
j=1

Proof :
By formula of conditional probability, we know that
P(A ∩ Ei )
P(Ei |A) =
P(A)
P(Ei )P(A|E i )
= (by multiplication rule of probability)
P(A)
P(Ei )P(A|E i )
= n (by the result of theorem of total
P(Ej )P(A|E j ) probability)
j=1
Remark

The following terminology is generally used when Bayes' theorem is applied.

The events E1 , E2 , ..., En are called hypotheses.

The probability P(Ei ) is called the priori probability of the hypothesis Ei

The conditional probability P(Ei |A) is called a posteriori probability of the

hypothesis Ei .

Example:
Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red

and 6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and it is

found to be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.

Solution

Let E1 be the event of choosing the bag I, E2 the event of choosing the bag II

and A be the event of drawing a red ball.

Then P(E 1 ) = P(E 2) = 1/2

Also P(A|E1 ) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag I) =3/2

and P(A|E2 ) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag II) = 5/11

Now, the probability of drawing a ball from Bag II, being given that it is red, is

P(E2 |A)
By using Bayes' theorem, we have
 P(E2)P(A|E2)
P(E2|A) =
P(E 1)P(A|E1 )+P(E2)P(A|E 2)

(1/2) X (5/11)
=
(1/2) X (3/7) + (1/2) X(5/11)

= 35/68

Example:
Suppose that the reliability of a HIV test is specified as follows: Of people

having HIV, 90% of the test detect the disease but 10% go undetected. Of

people free of HIV, 99% of the test are judged HIV–ive but 1% are diagnosed as

showing HIV+ive. From a large population of which only 0.1% have HIV, one

person is selected at random, given the HIV test, and the pathologist reports

him/her as HIV+ive. What is the probability that the person actually has HIV?

Solution
Let E denote the event that the person selected is actually having HIV and A the

event that the person's HIV test is diagnosed as +ive. We need to find P(E|A).

Also E′ denotes the event that the person selected is actually not having HIV.

Clearly, {E, E′} is a partition of the sample space of all people in the population.

We are given that

P(E) = 0.1% =0.001

P(E′) = 1 – P(E) = 0.999
P(A|E) = P(Person tested as HIV+ive given that he/she is actually having HIV)
= 90% = 0.09
P(A|E′) = P(Person tested as HIV +ive given that he/she is actually not having HIV)

= 1% = 0.01

Now, by Bayes' theorem

P(E )P(A|E )
P(E |A) =
P(E )P(A|E )+P(E’)P(A|E’)

0.001 × 0.9
=
0.001 × 0.9 + 0.999 × 0.01

= 0.083 approx.

Thus, the probability that a person selected at random is actually having HIV

given that he/she is tested HIV+ive is 0.083.

Random Variable
A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample space of

a random experiment.

For example, let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times in

succession.

The sample space of the experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.

If X denotes the number of heads obtained, then X is a random variable and for

each outcome, its value is as given below :

X(HH) = 2, X (HT) = 1, X (TH) = 1, X (TT) = 0.

More than one random variables can be defined on the same sample space. For

example, let Y denote the number of heads minus the number of tails for each

outcome of the above sample space S. Then Y(HH) = 2, Y (HT) = 0, Y (TH) = 0, Y

(TT) = – 2. Thus, X and Y are two different random variables defined on the

same sample space S.

Probability Distribution of a Random Variable

The Probability Distribution of a random variable X for the system of numbers is

defined as follows:

X: x1 x2 x3............xn

P(X): p1 p2 p3....... pn

n
pi =1
i=1

Where,

pi > 0, and i= 1, 2, 3, …, n.

The real numbers x1, x2, x3,…xn are the possible values of the random variable X,

and p1, p2, p3, …pn are the probabilities of the random variable X that takes the

value xi.

Therefore, P(X = xi) = pi.

(Note: The sum of all the probabilities in the probability distribution should be

equal to 1)
Mean of a Random Variable
If X is a random variable, and its possible values are x1, x2, x3,…xn associated with

the probabilities p1, p2, p3, ..pn, respectively, then the mean of the random

variable X is given by the formula:

n
𝐸(𝑋)=𝜇=∑𝑥𝑖𝑝𝑖
i=1

The mean of the random variable (µ) is also called the expectation of the

random variable E(X).

The mean of the random variable X can also be represented by

E(x) = x1p1+x2p2+x3p3+…..+xnpn

Thus, the mean or the expectation of the random variable X is defined as the

sum of the products of all possible values of X by their respective probability

values.