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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

1.2. Motion
1. MOTION, FORCES AND Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time.
ENERGY Use the equation
d
v= t Where:
​

1.1. Physical quantities and v is speed

d is distance
measurement techniques t is time
Velocity is defined as the speed in a given direction.
Making measurements (apparatus):
Distance Time Graphs and Speed Time Graphs
Liquids: A graduated measuring cylinder.
A pipette (accurate for one specific measurement)
Time: Stopwatch (reading to 0.1s or better)
Length: Metre rule (graduated in mm)
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Vernier Calliper
Volume: Measuring Length, Width, Height Distance-Time Graphs
Measuring volume by displacement 1 Acceleration
Mass: Top pan balance, precision of 0.1g 2 At rest
3 Deceleration
Vectors and Scalars:
4 Constant Speed
Scalar: has magnitude only
e.g. distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
Vector: has magnitude and direction
e.g. force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric
field strength and gravitational field strength
Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration:

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of

time.
Δv
a = v−u
Δt = Δt Where:
​

a is acceleration
v is final velocity
u is initial velocity
Δt is change in time

Falling objects:

Acceleration of free fall g for an object near to the surface

of the Earth is constant and is approximately 9.8 m/s².
At the beginning of the paper, the instructions will tell you
to use 10 m/s² or 9.8 m/s². This detail can be very
important.

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Terminal Velocity: Centre of mass:

An object which is falling because of acceleration due to The centre of mass is the place at which all of the object's
gravity through the atmosphere is subjected to two external mass is concentrated. Because gravity works only on one
forces. One force is the gravitational force, expressed as the spot in the item. For regularly formed objects, the centre of
weight of the object. The other force is the air resistance or mass is in the centre.
drag of the object. It is critical to understand where a body's centre of mass is
An object has terminal velocity when those two forces are located, as this dictates the body's stability. When a body is
equal. tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight passes through its
base, it is stable.
1.3. Mass and Weight
Resultant forces:
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at
Determine the resultant of two or more forces acting along
rest relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a
the same straight line.
measure of the amount of matter in it.
An object either remains at rest (stationary) or continues in a
Weight is a gravitational force on an object that has mass.
straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
Gravitational field strength g is defined as force per unit
force.
mass.
A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
The equation for gravitational field strength is :
changing its direction of motion or its speed.
g=m
w ​

Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the acceleration of Springs:

free fall.
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Sketch, plot and interpret load-extension graphs for an elastic
The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on solid (eg. metal wire) and be able to describe any
its mass. experimental procedures.
The limit of proportionality is a point on a load-extension
graph beyond which the graph is no longer a straight line.
1.4. Density Spring constant is defined as force per unit extension. \n
Recall and use the equation:
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
The equation for density is: k = Fx ​
Where:
p = mv ​ F is the force or load
With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid, x is the extension
of a regularly shaped solid and of an irregularly shaped solid k is the spring constant ( N/m, N/cm, N/mm)
which sinks in a liquid. You need to record its mass, then
volume and then substitute it through the equation. Hooke’s Law
Know whether an object floats based on density data. A
higher density means that the object will sink. A lower density F = kx
makes it float. This is called buoyancy. Recall and use the equation F = ma and know that the force
and acceleration are in the same direction.
How to determine whether one liquid will float on F = ma
another liquid based on density data given that the When F is the force in N
liquids do not mix: m is mass in kg
a is acceleration in m/s²
The liquid with a larger density will descend below the other
liquid. Centripetal Force
A liquid floats over the other liquid if it has a lower density.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force
1.5. Forces perpendicular to the motion.
In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed
A force is a push or a pull. increases (mass and radius are constants).
Forces may produce changes in the size, shape and In a circular motion, if radius decreases, the force needed
velocity of an object. increases (mass and speed are constants). In a circular
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may motion, if mass is increased, an increased force is
impede motion and produce heating. required to keep speed and radius constant.
Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
or a gas (air resistance). Moments of forces

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Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect.

The moment of a force is defined as moment = force x
perpendicular distance from the pivot.
Apply the principle of moments to situations with one
force on each side of the pivot, including balancing of a
beam. When there is no resultant force and no resultant
moment, an object is in equilibrium.
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
than one force on each side of the pivot.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no
resultant moment on an object in equilibrium.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its
centre of gravity.

Energy transfer diagrams :

1.6. Energy Work and Power
Energy 'stores’ are: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical,
elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and internal (thermal).
Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating, and by
electromagnetic, sound and other waves.

The principle of the conservation of energy.

Sankey Diagrams:
The principle of energy conservation states that energy is
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
type to another.
Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to
another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a system
always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into light
and heat. This energy is either absorbed or reflected by the
environment.
Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
Kinetic energy formula: transferred.
The equation for (mechanical) work done is:
W = F d = ΔE \n Units : Joules (J) \n Where :
W = Work Done \n F = magnitude of the force \n d = the
distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources

Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power

generated, from:
Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Change in gravitational potential energy formula:
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal
- Nuclear
Solar (EM Waves from the
-
sun)

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Non-Renewable Energy ΔE
Sources
Renewable Energy Sources P= ​

t
- Biofuels P = power (watt)
W = work done (J)
Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun. ΔE = energy transferred (J) \n T = time (s)
These are:
1.7. Momentum
Coal - formed from dead trees that have used energy
from the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become Momentum is defined as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
coal under pressure
Biofuels - organic matter that is burned in order to The equation for momentum is p = mv Where:
produce energy p is momentum
Hydro-electric - energy relies on the sun’s energy to run m is mass
the water cycle so energy can be harnessed v is velocity
Wind - gets heated and rises up and cooler air flows to fill Resultant force is defined as the change in momentum per
the space unit time:
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured F = Δp
Δt
​

by photocells and turned into energy

∴ F = mΔv
Δt ​

EnvironmentalImpulse of a force is defined as force x time for which force

Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact
acts: \n Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
Wind ✓ high low high on birds
Solar ✓ high low high low impact The principle of the conservation of momentum:
Almost no
Geothermal ✓ low high low
impact General law of physics according to which the quantity called
Biofuels ✓ high high low low impact momentum that characterises motion never changes in an
isolated collection of objects; that is, the total momentum of a
Hydro- impacts
✓ high high high closed system remains constant.
electric marine life
Tidal ✓ high low high -
1.8. Pressure
Greenhouse
Coal ☓ high high low
gases Pressure is defined as force per unit area, and measured in
Radioactive N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m
Nuclear ✓ low high low
substances
The equation for pressure is: p = Fa ​ Where:

Boilers, turbines and generators are used to generate p is pressure

electricity in a power plant. F is force
a is area
Pressure beneath the surface of a liquid changes with depth
and density of the liquid. The change in pressure beneath the
surface of a liquid is given by the equation:
change in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x
change in depth
Δp = ρgΔh Where:
Δp= pressure difference in pascals (Pa)
ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Efficiency: Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)

Efficiency = Useful energy outputTotal energy input100

2. # Kinetic Model of Matter
Power:
Properties of the 3 States of Matter - The molecular
Power is defined as work done per unit time and also as Model
energy transferred per unit time.
W
P= ​ \n
t
Δ

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In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount.

Increasing internal energy of an object :
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
Increased Temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Specific Heat
Capacity
Particles that make up matter can be made of one or
more atoms ΔE
As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their
c= ​

mΔθ
momentum changes and a force is created which can be
calculated using : Where :
m = mass (kg)
ΔP c = specific heat capacity ( J/K g o C )
Fnet =
Δt ΔE = energy provided ( J )
​ ​

Temperature has an Absolute Zero : -273℃

Δθ = change in temperature ( o C )
Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles
Note : 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)
suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with fast
moving atoms or molecules in the fluid. Melting, Boiling and Evaporation \n
2.1. Pressure and Volume at Constant Melting Boiling Evaporation
Temperature (Boyle’s Law) Occurs at a fixed Occurs at a fixed Occurs at any
temperature temperature temperature
P , V , T (Constant)
1 Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow
P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V
​

energy supply process process

V
Takes place at the Takes place
k Takes place at the
P = surface of the solid throughout the
surface only
only liquid
​

V
∴ k = PV
No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
P1 V1 = P2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​
Temperature Temperature Temperature may
remains constant remains constant change
Temperature Conversions : Heat from Heat from
External thermal
surroundings or surroundings is
energy source
Celcius to Kelvin o C → K : K = o C + 273 external source enough required
Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273
2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers
2.2. Thermal Properties and
Temperature Conduction Convection Radiation
Infrared Radiation
All Materials expand as they get warmer Fluid Conductors and
Thermal
It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids Trapped air pockets Electromagnetic
conductors Particle
and liquids prevent convection waves All objects
to Particle
In Solids, when temperature increases it makes the flow emit and absorb
particles vibrate faster and expands slightly in volume. radiation
In Liquids, when temperature increases particles move
faster around each other and expand.

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Conduction Convection Radiation The equation for critical angle is:

Through movement Fluid with more
It depends on
and vibration of energy rises above
temperature,
delocalised less energy to
colour, surface
electrons \n Not for create convection
area and texture
Vacuums current
Ex : Radiators or Ex : Vacuum of
Ex : Kitchen Pans
heaters space

Radiation vs Colour and Texture

Describe internal reflection and total internal reflection.

Refractive index, n, is defined as the ratio of the speeds of
a wave in two different regions
The equation for refractive index is:

Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area

Describe the use of optical fibres, particularly in
Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted telecommunications.
A thin converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
Thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
3. # Light The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
Light is an electromagnetic wave that is capable of lens meet.
passing through free space or through a material medium The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through
in the form of varying electric and magnetic fields. the centre of the lens.
Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens
boundary of two materials. to the principal focus \n
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident How to draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
ray to the normal. The angle of reflection is the angle real image by a converging lens.
made by the reflected ray to the normal. Describe the characteristics of an image using the
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following terms enlarged/same size/ diminished,
characteristics: same size, same distance from the upright/inverted and real/virtual.
mirror, and virtual. Know that a virtual image is formed when diverging
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is rays are extrapolated backwards and do not form a
equal to the angle of reflection. visible projection on a screen.
How to use simple constructions, measurements and Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
calculations for reflection by plane mirrors. virtual image by a converging lens.
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted
Position of Relative size of Nature of
ray to the normal. Position of Image
Object image Image
Describe an experiment to show the refraction of light by
transparent blocks of different shapes. Point sized, Real and
At Infinity At Focus
Describe the passage of light through a transparent very small Inverted
material. Real and
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished
The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the Inverted
denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°.

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Position of Relative size of Nature of 3.3. General Properties of Waves

Position of Image
Object image Image
Real and
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted
Between F Real and
Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted
Huge, very Real and
At Focus F At Infinity
large Inverted
On the same side of
Between F Virtual and
the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
object

Describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass. Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,
A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness. measured in mm cm or m
A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
The dispersion of light as shown by the refraction of white point per unit of time.
light passing through a glass prism. Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
Know the seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, second
indigo and violet) of white light, and that frequency Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
increases from red to violet and wavelength decreases from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
from red to blue. Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
described as monochromatic. Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
3.2. Sound wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
used to show some properties of waves.
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are
known as sound waves. Sound waves require a medium to Relationship between speed,
be transmitted (such as air).
Compressions - high pressure ; Rarefactions - low frequency and wavelength:
pressure
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v = f × λ
gases are the slowest. Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. ripple tank) :
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its
frequency.
An echo is a reflection of sound waves.
DESCRIBING A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SPEED
OF SOUND IN AIR : \n Make a noise at a known, significant
distance from a solid wall and record the time it takes for
the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then use speed =
distance/time, taking into account the fact that the sound
has to travel there and back.
Sound travels at 343 metres per second in air, 1493
metres per second in water, and 5130 metres per second
in steel.
For a healthy human ear, the audible frequency range is
20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Ultrasound is defined as sound having a frequency of
more than 20000 Hz:
Ultrasound is partially reflected back when it reaches a
border between two media. The remaining waves pass
through. A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect
the reflected waves to determine the distance of objects
below the surface. Ultrasound is utilised for SONAR and
medical imaging without the usage of ionising radiation.

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4. Electricity and Magnetism

4.1. Magnetism
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole.
The magnetism is strongest at the poles.
Unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
A magnetic material is defined as something that can be
magnetised temporarily or permanently.
When we refer to a 'magnet', we are referring to a
permanent magnet, made of magnetically hard materials.
Permanent magnets remain magnetic (hard) whereas
temporary magnets lose their magnetism (soft).
A soft magnetic material can be induced by attracting it to
a strong magnet, however it loses its magnetism once it is
removed.
A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole
experiences a force.
The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction
of the force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.

Magnetic field lines can be plotted using a compass or

iron filings.
The spacing between the magnetic field lines shows how
strong the field is. As the field lines get further away, the
force gets weaker.
Electromagnetism is explained in the next few lessons.

4.2. Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge (measured in Coulombs)

positive or negative
similar charges repel, opposite charges attract
1 1 Electrical conductors and insulators Conductors:
Frequency = f= materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals
period (s)
​ ​

T
are the best electrical conductors as they have free
1 1
Period (s) = T= electrons. E.g. copper
Frequency Frequency
​ ​

Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their

electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but

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they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber Charging

insulators by friction

Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle

and a length of string so that the material can rotate
freely Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order
to give it a charge) Now take a second piece of insulating
material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the
charged end of the first piece: If the first piece rotates
away (is repelled) from the second piece then the
materials have the same charge If the first piece moved
Current
towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have
opposite charges
Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is
Simple Electrostatic Experiments
connected in series
Current is a rate of flow of charge
In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons

Current follows path of least resistance

Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to
that which electrons flow in.
Red = Conventional Current
Green = flow of electrons

Attraction and Repulsion of Point Charges

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Alternating Current vs Direct Current

Direct Current (dc)

Direct current is produced when using dry cells and

batteries (and sometimes generators, although these are
usually ac)
The electrons flow in one direction only, from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Conventional current flows from the positive to the
negative terminal

Alternating Current (ac)

Alternating current typically comes from mains electricity

and generators
It is needed for use in transformers in the National Grid
(covered later in this topic)
The direction of electron flow changes direction
regularly
A typical frequency for the reversal of ac current in
mains electricity is 50 Hz

Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.
When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
because of the energy wastage inside the cell.
A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
not supplying current.

Potential Difference (P.D)

Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as

voltage.
Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V)
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each
coulomb of charge (J/C).

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Measuring potential difference and voltage 1

Ω∝
A
​

Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
being tested. The potential difference is the difference in
electrical potential between two points, therefore the
Current Voltage (IV Graphs)
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit.
As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is
Resistance increased, the current in the component also increases. The
precise relationship between voltage and current can be
Resistance is the opposition to current. For a given potential different for different types of components and is shown by
difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the current. an IV graph:
Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the current.
The unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.
Current
Resistance (Ω) =
Voltage
​

(Ohmic Conductor = Resistor)

Electrical Energy and Electrical Power Electrical energy is
transferred from the battery or power source to the circuit
components then into the surroundings.
ΔE
1 Watt is 1 J/s P = ​

t
P = IV ∴Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
ΔE
IV = ∴Electrical energy = Voltage (V) × Current (A) ×
t
​

Time (s)
E = V It

The Kilowatt Hour ​

This energy is commonly measured in kilowatt-hour (kW h),

which is then used to calculate the cost of energy used. 1 kWh
is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1
hour
Energy in kWh = power in kW x time in hours.
To convert between Joules and kWh:

Explanation:
ΔE = Pt ⟹ 1kWh = 1kW × 1h
1J
1 Watt = and 1kW = 1000W
​

s
⟹ 1kWh = 1000J × 3600s = 3.6 × 106 J
Circuit diagrams and components

Factors affecting resistance: Component Symbol Function

In open position the
Length Switch circuit is broken so
no current flows
Ω∝L
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus
encounter more resistance.
Cross-sectional area

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Component Symbol Function Component Symbol Function

A transformer is a
Supplies the device that transfers
Cell electrical energy to electric energy from
the circuit one alternating-
current circuit to one
Transformer or more other
circuits, either
A battery is more increasing (stepping
Battery
than one cell. up) or reducing
(stepping down) the
voltage.
Electromagnetic
A power supply is a
coils are used in
device that converts
electrical
one voltage to
Power Supply d.c. engineering, in
another more
and a.c. applications where
convenient voltage
electric currents
while delivering Magnetising interact with
power. Coils magnetic fields, in
Instrument used to devices such as
Ammeter measure electrical electric motors,
current. generators,
Instrument used to inductors,
Voltmeter measure potential electromagnets and
difference. transformers.

Converts electrical A safety device

Lamp which melts to break
energy to light.
the circuit if the
Restricts the flow of Fuse electrical current
electrical current. flowing through it
Can be used to limit exceeds a specified
Fixed Resistor
the flow of current to value.
a particular The relay permits a
component. small amount of
Used to control electrical current to
current and control high current
Variable Resistor
resistance in a loads. When voltage
circuit. is supplied to the
coil, small current
Converts heat to Relay
Thermistor passes through the
electrical resistance. coil, resulting in a
larger amount of
Light-Dependent Converts light to current passing
Resistor electrical resistance. through the contacts
to control the
Converts electrical electrical load.
Heater
energy to heat. An electric generator
is a device that
To provide a variable
converts mechanical
potential difference.
Generator energy obtained
To split the potential
Potential Divider from an external
difference of a
source into electrical
power source
energy as the output.
between two or
more components.

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Component Symbol Function

A motor is a device
that can convert
Motor
electrical energy into
mechanical energy.

A device which only allows

Diode
current to flow in one direction

Light Emitting
A diode that emits light
Diode (LED)

5. Atomic Physics
The Atom
5.1. Nuclear Model of The Atom
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively
All matter is made up of atoms. charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are
called nucleons. They are bound together by the strong
nuclear force.
Electrons: almost massless particles which orbit nucleus
in shells
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

ISOTOPES
The structure of an atom is simple.
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers
Alpha Scattering Gold Foil experiment of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
(Rutherford’s) They have identical chemical properties but can have
different physical properties eg: radioactive

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom

splits into two or more smaller nuclei, because of the addition
of an electron. The fission process often produces gamma
photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.

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Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a

fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single
heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the
total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes
energy.

Background Radiation

It is important to remember that radiation is a natural

phenomenon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in
outer space
However, human activity has added to the amount of
radiation that humans are exposed to on Earth.
Background radiation is defined as the radiation that
exists around us all the time.
The sources of it include : radioactivity in air, cosmic rays,
rocks and buildings, food and drink, medical, nuclear
power and testing.

The three types of nuclear emission

5.2. Radioactivity
Atomic nuclei of most isotopes are unstable.
To become stable they give out radiation. As the radiation
Detecting radiation
moves away it takes some energy with it. This makes the
It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to nucleus more stable. This is called radioactive decay.
radiation This cannot be controlled by external factors so it is
Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a GM Tube known as a spontaneous and random event.
detector connected to a radiation counter. The 3 types of radioactive emissions are:
Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded
by a detector and recorded by the counter. It is measured
in counts/s or counts/min
The count rate decreases the further the detector is from
the source. This is because the radiation becomes more
spread out the further away it is from the source

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- Helium Nucleus \n - - Relative -short wavelength It is impossible to know when a particular unstable
Relative charge of +2 \n - charge of -1 EM waves \n - nucleus will decay
2p and 2n \n - 1e− uncharged But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
can be known. This is known as the half-life. Half-life is
defined as:
Effects of electricity & magnetism on radioactive
emissions, and ionisation caused by them. The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any
sample to decay
Alpha Beta Gamma
Electric Move away from Move towards The activity of a source is measured in becquerels. (Bq)
No change Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives
fields + particles + particles
can vary from a fraction of a second to billions of years in
Magnetic Use the left hand Use the left
No change length
fields rule hand rule
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph
Ionises most Ionises least
Ionises lesser
Ionisation particles due particles because
particles
great mass no charge

Radioactive Decay

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a

different element
The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
The nucleus of the new element is often called the
daughter nucleus
During α-decay, 2p and 2n is lost and hence the nucleon
number and proton number changes and a new element The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease
is formed. from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
During β-decay, one neutron from the nucleus changes It is the same length of time as it would take to
into a proton and electron. The electron is removed from decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity
the atom and given out as radiation. The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
During gamma ray decay, the nucleus releases an EM
wave and rearranges itself internally. No change is made Uses of isotopes
in the number of subatomic particles.
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of
cancer
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)
Checking the thickness of materials
Smoke detectors (alarms)
Medical and industrial tracers

Safety Precautions

Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and

return them to their boxes as soon as you have finished
using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from
the sources as feasible. When handling the sources do not
point at human tissue, using a pair of tweezers
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes.
Sometimes you can wear lead lined aprons

Nuclide Notation and Nuclear reactions.

There are 2 basic types of questions:

Half Life

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times.
The solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner, rocky planets.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer, gas
giants.
There are millions of asteroids and meteoroids orbiting
the sun, mainly found between Mars and Jupiter.

Comets are balls of ice, dust and gas. They orbit the sun in a
Nuclide notation is the notation of an element when it is
very elliptical orbit leaving a trail of gas and dust behind.
written with its proton number and nucleon number. \n A
However, this is not the tail of the comet because the tail
nuclear reaction would take place like this.
always faces away from the Sun.

6. Earth and The Solar Source: IGCSE textbook 0625

System The Formation of A Solar System

Our solar system was formed when a molecular cloud
6.1. Earth and Other Bodies collapsed into itself because of its own gravity. Gasses and
dust particles start to come together getting closer and
The Earth rotates around its axis, which is tilted 23.5 faster. They gain speed in a spinning motion. This process is
degrees, from West to East and revolves around the sun called accretion. The disk formed by accretion is called the
in 365.25 days. accretion disk.
The Earth has a Southern Hemisphere and a Northern
Hemisphere divided by the Equator.
Hemisphere: half of a sphere; Earth is divided into 2
hemispheres.

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcRhn2q4cvaoJd08MCr6EiNBafbyhktMBpjbfz_DIn7M

Gravity pulls heavier particles close together toward the

https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg- centre.
c99eb0c0beb3e19bef78e8bfed6bc564 The gasses get hot and pressurised enough to start
nuclear fusion.
Countries at the equator do not experience season
changes as the sun hits them at the same angle at all

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The dust particles clump together and form the inner 2πr
rocky planets while gasses orbit the centre farther away
Orbital speed = ​

t
and form gas giants.
The centre of the accretion disk starts to form a new star
called a protostar. At this point, gravity is still pulling mass Universe and Stars
together.
6.2. Sun
Our Solar System
The Sun produces energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen
The Sun makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the solar into helium.
system. It has a strong gravitational pull keeping al the
planets in orbit. It is made of 75% hydrogen, 24% helium and the rest is
made of other elements like oxygen and carbon.
We know from the chapter of circular motion that in order for 40% of its energy is visible light, 50% of it is infrared
an object to move in a circular path, a force needs to act on radiation and 10% is ultraviolet.
the object towards the centre of its orbit. Matter exists as plasma in the sun’s core which has a
temperature of 15 000 000K, and a surface temperature
All the planet’s orbits are elliptical and the measure of of 5800K.
how elliptical it is is called eccentricity.
It has a mass of 2 × 10 30 Kg which is often referred to as
The centre of orbit is not directly on the sun but close
solar mass.
enough to the centre that we say that we orbit the sun.

Light Year and Distances

A light-year is the distance travelled by light in one year. So:
one light-year = 3 × 10 8 m/s × 365.25 days ×
24 hours × 3600 seconds = 9.5 × 10 15 m
Astronomers can also use other ways to measure distances.
They can be done using parallax. This is when the stars
appear to move across the sky when we view them from
different points on our orbit.

https://static8.depositphotos.com/1163607/1070/i/950/depositphotos_10706068-
stock-photo-our-solar-system.jpg
The reason all orbits are not perfectly circular is because of
the energy changes during its orbital period.
Point A is Earth in the summer and point B is Earth in the
The star pulls the body of mass towards itself. This pull
winter. The telescope is pointed towards X at point A and the
generates speed which, we know, will cause the body to move
stars are seen. The telescope is pointed in the direction of X
away from the star. (Increasing speed increases the size of
at point B - denoted by the dotted line - and shows that the
the orbit.)
same stars cannot be seen. The telescope is moved twice the
There are only two main types of energy we need to consider
parallax angle to see the point Y.
in space.
We can use trigonometry to calculate the distance between
1. Kinetic Energy the stars and the Earth.
2. Gravitational Potential Energy
Stars and Star Life Cycles
A planet close to the sun has a low GPE but a high KE. A
planet far away from the sun has a high GPE and a low KE. There might be 200 billion stars in the Milky Way. A star starts
How to calculate orbital speed:
out as a protostar. Interstellar clouds are dust clouds that
The formula for speed is distance/time. We consider the exist between stars. Molecular clouds are clouds mostly of
orbits to be perfectly circular in this situation. The formula hydrogen that is cold and dense enough to collapse and form
is: stars.

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Accretion begins to pull matter in.

A protostar is formed (refer to previous card for revision)
A stable star is born when gravity is equal to the radiation
pressure exerted by the high temperature and nuclear
fusion.
Radiation pressure - the outward force due to the high
temperature of the star.

https://schoolworkhelper.net/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/life-cycle-of-star.jpg

The Life Cycle of A Star Exceeding Eight Solar

Masses

It begin as a protostar but the core is more massive and hot

enough to fuse heavier elements further from the core. The
outer shell expands into a red supergiant.

Red Supergiants - similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least 8 times the mass of the sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen
http://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/519784/1188283/Hydrostatic_equ_standfordUni/7ad412ee-
continues in their outer shell
be12-4a56-9da8-592533719992?t=1476554115279

Life Cycle of a Star Less Than Eight Solar Masses

Like the sun, a stable star fuses hydrogen into helium. This is
a stable main sequence star. Our sun is 4.5 billion years old
and about half-way though its time as a stable star.

Main sequence - stable star that is burning up hydrogen in

its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes
onto another stage of its life cycle.

Once it burns through the hydrogen, it starts to fuse helium.

This requires a higher temperature at the core. It becomes a
red giant which are larger stars with cooler surfaces.
Eventually the core will collapse into a white dwarf star not
exceeding 1.4 solar masses.
It is not hot enough to fuse the elements inside it and cools to
become a black dwarf.
The outer shell is blown off by radiation pressure and
becomes a planetary nebula.

Red Giant - a star that began with fewer than eight solar
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/H58eVHSXEQH37qkPX2qdU
masses and is burning helium at its core; the shell of
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hydrogen has expanded and cooled. Kyh4n5JZweLHyFi8lSqL0HSpIER3PubnM-
White dwarf - the final stage of a star that started with
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fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuel has been The layers go in order of outer-most to inner-most:
used up
HYDROGEN, HELIUM, CARBON, OXYGEN, NEON,
MAGNESIUM, SILICON and then IRON.

It is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by

nuclear fusion.
Once all the fuel runs out, the star collapses in a
supernova, providing the energy to fuse the iron into

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heavier elements and pushing matter out into space as a

nebula.
After the supernova, the core becomes one of two things:
a neutron star or a black hole.
A neutron star is formed if the mass of the core is less
than about 3 solar masses. It forces protons and
electrons together to form neutrons.
A heavier core will keep collapsing till it becomes so
dense that not even light can escape it. It becomes a
black hole.

Spectroscopy
https://www.youphysics.education/wp-
There are many dark lines in the wavelengths of visible light content/uploads/Doppler2.webp
coming from the Sun. This is because the cool gas in the sun’s
The ambulance is moving at a certain speed towards the
Sun’s atmosphere absorbs them. A spectrum with these
right.
absorption lines is known as an absorption spectrum.
As the siren rings once, the sound wave is produced and
starts to move away from that point.
By the time the siren rings again, the ambulance has
moved.
The ambulance closes that gap between itself and the
wave in front of it.
This causes the second wave to be released closer to the
first wave. The waves ahead of the vehicle compress as it
approaches and observer B hears a rising pitch.
The wave emitted behind the car is moving in the opposite
direction. The car is moved away before emitting a
second wave.
The waves behind the ambulance are further apart giving
it a receding pitch as the waves are stretched behind the
vehicle. Observer A hears a receding pitch.

https://www.redshift- The Doppler effect is a property of all waves including light. It

is proof that the Universe is expanding and suggests that the
live.com/binaries/asset/image/18408/image/Redshift_of_spectral_lines_in_the_optical_spectrum.jpg
The top line represents the absorption spectrum observed in galaxies must have been close together in the past.
an experiment in earth and the bottom line is a redshifted
one from a distant galaxy. The Big Bang Theory and Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
Redshift is the shifting of light to the red end of the
spectrum which has longer wavelengths. The theory that the Universe had a beginning is the Big
Redshift is caused by the Doppler effect Bang Theory which states that the Universe (space, time,
matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion
The Doppler Effect years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever
since.
The doppler effect is the rise or fall in pitch as the source of The Big Bang was not an explosion. The singularity was
the wave moves closer or away from us. Here is an example. unimaginably hot and dense which has been expanding
and cooling. Neutral atoms could not form due to the heat
of the early Universe; they would ionise.
Light continuously scattered around until the universe
cooled.
The expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength
of the light to redshift.

( For a detailed understanding, refer the new text book,

Chapter 25, Page 477 - 478 )

Hubble’s Law

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The Doppler effect can be used to work out how fast galaxies The Hubble constant is the gradient of this graph:
are moving away from us. The speed at which galaxies are v
Ho =
moving away from us is proportional to the distance away
​ ​

d
from us. Estimate for the age of the Universe:
d 1
=
​ ​

v Ho ​

The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as

Hubble time because it can be used to work out the age of the
universe. The current estimate for Ho is 2.2 x 10^-18 per
second.
We know that:
distance
time = So: ​

speed
d 1
tuniverse = = ​ ​

v Ho ​

Therefore the age of the Universe is:

1 1
https://physicsanduniverse.com/wp-
tuniverse = = = 4.5 × 1017 s =
2.2 × 10−18
​ ​

Ho ​

content/uploads/2014/02/Hubble-Law-2010.jpeg 14.4 × 109 years

The line of best fit is Hubble’s Law:
The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity)
V = Ho d where v is the recession speed of the galaxies, d is
​

about 14.5 billion years ago.

their distance from us and Ho is the Hubble Constant
​

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Physics

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