INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

In statistics as well as in quantitative methodology, the set of data are collected and selected
from a statistical population with the help of some defined procedures. There are two
different types of data sets namely, population and sample. So basically when we calculate
the mean deviation, variance and standard deviation, it is necessary for us to know if we are
referring to the entire population or to only sample data. Suppose the size of the population is
denoted by ‘n’ then the sample size of that population is denoted by n -1. Let us take a look
of population data sets and sample data sets in detail.

Population

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

It includes all the elements from the data set and measurable characteristics of the population
such as mean and standard deviation are known as a parameter. For example, All people
living in India indicates the population of India.

There are different types of population. They are:

 Finite Population
 Infinite Population
 Existent Population
 Hypothetical Population

Let us discuss all the types one by one.

Finite Population

The finite population is also known as a countable population in which the population can be
counted. In other words, it is defined as the population of all the individuals or objects that
are finite. For statistical analysis, the finite population is more advantageous than the infinite
population. Examples of finite populations are employees of a company, potential consumer
in a market.

Infinite Population

The infinite population is also known as an uncountable population in which the counting of
units in the population is not possible. Example of an infinite population is the number of
germs in the patient’s body is uncountable.

Existent Population

The existing population is defined as the population of concrete individuals. In other words,
the population whose unit is available in solid form is known as existent population.
Examples are books, students etc.
Hypothetical Population

The population in which whose unit is not available in solid form is known as the
hypothetical population. A population consists of sets of observations, objects etc that are all
something in common. In some situations, the populations are only hypothetical. Examples
are an outcome of rolling the dice, the outcome of tossing a coin.

Sample

A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is
always less than the total size of the population.

It includes one or more observations that are drawn from the population and the measurable
characteristic of a sample is a statistic. Sampling is the process of selecting the sample from
the population. For example, some people living in India are the sample of the population.

Basically, there are two types of sampling. They are:

 Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling

Population and Sample Examples

 All the people who have the ID proofs is the population and a group of people who
only have voter id with them is the sample.
 All the students in the class are population whereas the top 10 students in the class are
the sample.
 All the members of the parliament is population and the female candidates present
there is the sample.

Difference between Population and Sample

Some of the key differences between population and sample are clearly given below:

Comparison Population Sample

Collection of all the units or elements that A subgroup of the members of

Meaning
possess common characteristics the population

Only includes a handful of

Includes Each and every element of a group
units of population

Characteristics Parameter Statistic

Data Collection Complete enumeration or census Sampling or sample survey

Making inferences about the

Focus on Identification of the characteristics
population
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being
selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid
choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list
that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and
team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over
people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based
on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company,
so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on
each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100
people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from
each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If
the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster
using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk
of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult
to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices –
these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not
every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias.
That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with
probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability
sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research.
In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to
the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services
in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed
students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of
all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of
access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your
university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have
strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population
is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion
criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via
other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way
of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting
others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.

Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible.
You meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact
with other homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion
of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics,
determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what
or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters,
vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater
to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.