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3. PERMANENT MAGNET AND RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTORS

A stepper motor converts electrical pulses into specific rotational movements. The
movement created by each pulse is precise and repeatable, which is why stepper motors are so
effective for positioning applications.
Stepper motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet and variable reluctance (there
are also hybrid motors, which are indistinguishable from permanent magnet motors from the
controller's point of view). When no power is applied permanent magnet motors tend to "cog"
while rotor is revolved, while variable reluctance motors almost spin freely (although they
may cog slightly because of residual magnetization in the rotor). Variable reluctance motors
usually have three (sometimes four) windings, with a common return, while permanent
magnet motors usually have two independent windings, with or without center taps. Center-
tapped windings are used in unipolar permanent magnet motors.
Stepping motors come in a wide range of angular resolution. The coarsest motors typically
turn 90 degrees per step, while high resolution permanent magnet motors are commonly able
to handle 1.8 or even 0.72 degrees per step. With an appropriate controller, most permanent
magnet and hybrid motors can be run in half-steps, and some controllers can handle smaller
fractional steps or microsteps.
For both permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepping motors, if just one winding
of the motor is energised, the rotor (under no load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold
that angle until the torque exceeds the holding torque of the motor, at which point, the rotor
will turn, trying to hold at each successive equilibrium point.

3.1 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE MOTORS

Typical connection of variable reluctance stepping motor with three windings and with
one terminal common to all windings is shown in the schematic diagram in Fig.3.1. In use, the
common wire typically goes to the positive supply and the windings are energized in
sequence.

Fig.3.1. Variable reluctance stepper motor

The cross section shown in figure 3.1 is of 30 degree per step variable reluctance motor.
The rotor in this motor has 4 teeth and the stator has 6 poles (thar ressemble SRM most
comon construction), with each winding wrapped around two opposite poles. With winding
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number 1 energised, the rotor teeth alligned with Y coordinate are attracted to this winding's
poles. If the current through winding 1 is turned off and winding 2 is turned on, the rotor will
rotate 30 degrees clockwise so that the poles alligned with X coordinate line up with the poles
marked 2.
There are also variable reluctance stepping motors with 4 and 5 windings, requiring 5 or 6
wires. The motor geometry illustrated in Figure 3.1, giving 30 degrees per step, uses the
fewest number of rotor teeth and stator poles that performs satisfactorily. Using more motor
poles and more rotor teeth allows construction of motors with smaller step angle. Toothed
faces on each pole and a correspondingly finely toothed rotor allows for step angles as small
as a few degrees (Fig.3.2).

Fig.3.2. Construction of stepper motor with groves introduced on stator pole shoe.

The number of rotor groves has to satisfy relation:

zr 1
C ; (3.1)
2p m
were: zr – number of rotor teeth;
2p – number of pole pairs;
C – chosen number;
m – number of phases;

and stator poles should be distributed symmetrically in such a way that under two opposite
poles rotor and stator tooth match each other and under the others should be shifted by 1/m of
tooth pitch.

To rotate Variable reluctance stepper motor (as in Fig.3.1) continuously, we just apply
power to the 3 windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1 means turning on
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the current through a motor winding, the following control sequence will spin the motor
illustrated in figure 3.1 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions:

Table 1
CW Bipolar step Q1 Q2 Q3 CCW
rotation 1 ON OFF OFF rotation
2 OFF ON OFF
3 OFF OFF ON
1 ON OFF OFF

3.2 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

Permanent Magnet stepper motors incorporate a permanent magnet rotor, coil windings
and magnetically conductive stators. Energizing a coil winding creates an electromagnetic
field with a north and south pole as shown in Fig.3.3.

Fig.3.3. Magnetic field creating by energizing a coil winding.

The stator carries the magnetic field which causes the rotor to align itself with the
magnetic field. The magnetic field can be altered by sequentially energizing or “stepping” the
stator coils which generates rotary motion. The motor cross section shown in Fig.3.4 is of a 30
degree per step permanent magnet or hybrid motor - the difference between these two motor
types is not relevant at this level of abstraction.

Fig.3.4. Permanent magnet stepper motor crossection.

Motor winding number 1 is distributed between the top and bottom stator pole, while
motor winding number 2 is distributed between the left and right motor poles. The rotor is a
permanent magnet with 6 poles, 3 south and 3 north, arranged around its circumfrence.
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Fig.3.5. Partial cut away showing pole plates of a 7.5° step angle motor.

For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must have proportionally more poles. The 30
degree per step motor in the Fig.3.4 is one of the most common permanent magnet motor
designs, although 15 and 7.5 degree per step motors are widely available. Permanent magnet
motors with resolutions as good as 1.8 degrees per step are made. A rotor from a 7.5° motor
has 12 pole pairs and each pole plate has 12 teeth. There are two pole plates per coil and two
coils per motor; hence 48 poles in a 7.5° per step motor. Fig.3.5 illustrates the 4 pole plates of
a 7.5° motor in a cut away view. Multiple steps can be combined to provide larger movements.
For example, six steps of a 7.5° stepper motor would deliver a 45° movement.
Hybrid stepper motors are routinely built with 3.6 and 1.8 degrees per step, with
resolutions as fine as 0.72 degrees per step available.
Fig.3.6 illustrates a typical step sequence for a two phase motor called “one phase on”
stepping.

Fig.3.6. „One phase on” stepping sequence for two phase motor.

In Step 1 phase A of a two phase stator is energized. This magnetically locks the rotor in
the position shown, since unlike poles attract. When phase A is turned off and phase B is
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turned on, the rotor rotates 90° clockwise. In Step 3, phase B is turned off and phase A is
turned on but with the polarity reversed from Step 1. This causes another 90° rotation. In Step
4, phase A is turned off and phase B is turned on, with polarity reversed from Step2.
Repeating this sequence causes the rotor to rotate clockwise in 90° steps.

Fig.3.7. „Two phase on” stepping sequence for two phase motor.

A more common method of stepping is “two phase on” where both phases of the motor
are always energized. However, only the polarity of one phase is switched at a time, as shown
in Fig.3.7. With two phase on stepping the rotor aligns itself between the “average” north and
“average” south magnetic poles. Since both phases are always on, this method gives 41.4%
more torque than “one phase on” stepping, but with twice the power input.

Fig.3.8. „Half stepping” – 90o step angle is reduced to 45o with half stepping.
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The motor can also be “half stepped” by inserting an off state between transitioning
phases. This cuts a stepper’s full step angle in half. For example, a 90° stepping motor would
move 45° on each half step, Fig.3.8. However, half stepping typically results in a 15% - 30%
loss of torque depending on step rate when compared to the “two phase on” stepping sequence.
Since one of the windings is not energized during each alternating half step there is less
electromagnetic force exerted on the rotor resulting in a net loss of torque.

3.2.1 BIPOLAR WINDINGS

Bipolar coil windings are the most popular ones, are used in all variable reluctance motors
and in most permanent magnet motors. Each phase consists of a single winding. If necessary
by reversing the current in the windings, electromagnetic polarity is reversed. Thus, the motor
itself is simpler but the drive is more complex. The output stage of a typical two phase bipolar
drive, way of wiring and motor cross section is illustrated in Fig.3.9.
The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge control circuit for each winding.
An H-bridge allows the polarity of the power applied to each end of each winding to be
controlled independently.

Fig.3.9. Typical two phase bipolar drive.

The control sequences for single stepping such a motor are shown in Table.2.

Table2
CW Bipolar step Q2-Q3 Q1-Q4 Q6-Q7 Q5-Q8 CCW
rotation 1 ON OFF ON OFF rotation
2 OFF ON ON OFF
3 OFF ON OFF ON
4 ON OFF OFF ON
1 ON OFF ON OFF

Some permanent magnet stepping motors have 4 independent windings, organized as two
sets of two (so called bifilar windings). Within each set, if the two windings are wired in
series, the result can be used as a high voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in parallel, the
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result can be used as a low voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in series with a center tap,
the result can be used as a low voltage unipolar motor.

3.2.2 UNIPOLAR WINDINGS

Another common winding is the unipolar winding. This consists of two windings on a
pole connected in such a way (with a center tap on each of winding) that when one part of
winding is energized a magnetic north pole is created, when the other is energized a south
pole is created. This is referred to as a unipolar winding because the electrical polarity, i.e.
current flow, from the drive to the coils is never reversed. This design allows for a simpler
electronic drive. In use, the center taps of the windings are typically wired to the positive
supply, and the two ends of each winding are alternately.However, there is approximately
30% less torque available compared to a bipolar winding. Torque is lower because the
energized coil only utilizes half as much copper as compared to a bipolar coil. The output
stage of a typical two phase unipolar drive, way of wiring and motor cross section is
illustrated in Fig.3.10.

Fig.3.10. Typical two phase unipolar drive.

The stepping sequence is illustrated in Table.3.

Table.3.
CW Bipolar step Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 CCW
rotation 1 ON OFF ON OFF rotation
2 OFF ON ON OFF
3 OFF ON OFF ON
4 ON OFF OFF ON
1 ON OFF ON OFF
These sequences are identical to those for a bipolar permanent magnet motor, at an
abstract level, and that above the level of the power switching electronics (for bipolar
windings the H-bridge is used, for unipolar single key system is used), the control systems for
the two types of motor can be identical.
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3.2.3 MULTIPHASE WINDINGS

A less common class of permanent magnet or hybrid stepping motor is wired with all
windings of the motor in a cyclic series, with one tap between each pair of windings in the
cycle, or with only one end of each motor winding exposed while the other ends of each
winding are tied together to an inaccessible internal connection. In the context of 3-phase
motors, these configurations would be described as Delta and Y configurations, but they are
also used with 5-phase motors, as illustrated in Fig.3.11.
Some multiphase motors expose all ends of all motor windings, leaving it to the user to
decide between the Delta and Y configurations, or alternatively, allowing each winding to be
driven independently.

Fig.3.11. 5-phase motors windings configurations.

Control of either one of these multiphase motors in either the Delta or Y configuration
requires 1/2 of an H-bridge for each motor terminal. It is noteworthy that 5-phase motors have
the potential of delivering more torque from a given package size because all or all but one of
the motor windings are energised at every point in the drive cycle. Some 5-phase motors have
high resolutions on the order of 0.72 degrees per step (500 steps per revolution).

3.3 LINEAR ACTUATORS

The rotary motion of a stepper motor can be converted into linear motion by several
mechanical means. These include rack & pinion, belt and pulleys and other mechanical
linkages. All of these options require various external mechanical components. The most
effective way to accomplish this conversion is within the motor itself. The linear actuator was
first introduced in 1968.
Conversion of rotary to linear motion inside a linear actuator is accomplished through a
threaded nut and leadscrew. The inside of the rotor is threaded and the shaft is replaced by a
lead screw. In order to generate linear motion the lead screw must be prevented from rotating.
As the rotor turns the internal threads engage the lead screw resulting in linear motion.
Changing the direction of rotation reverses the direction of linear motion. The basic
construction of a linear actuator is illustrated in Fig.3.12.
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Fig.3.12. Linear actuator cut away showing threaded rotor to leadscrew interface.

The linear travel per step of the motor is determined by the motor’s rotary step angle and
the thread pitch of the rotor nut and leadscrew combination. Coarse thread pitches give larger
travel per step than fine pitch screws. However, for a given step rate, fine pitch screws deliver
greater thrust. Fine pitch screws usually can not be manually “backdriven” or translated when
the motor is unenergized, whereas many coarse screws can. A small amount of clearance must
exist between the rotor and screw threads to provide freedom of movement for efficient
operation. This result in .001” to .003” of axial play (also called backlash). If extreme
positioning accuracy is required, backlash can be compensated for by always approaching the
final position from the same direction. Accomplishing the conversion of rotary to linear
motion inside the rotor greatly simplifies the process of delivering linear motion for many
applications. Because the linear actuator is self contained, the requirements for external
components such as belts and pulleys are greatly reduced or eliminated. Fewer components
make the design process easier, reduce overall system cost and size and improve product
reliability.

3.4 STEPPER MOTOR DYNAMICS

Stepper motor is an electromechanical actuator that responds to a command in

electrical input by displacing its rotor by a fixed angular displacement. Since it is controlled
by electronic drive circuitry therefore it can be employed where there is a need to convert
digital input pulses into analog shaft-output motion. Stepper motor should make fast response
to an input pulse or pulse sequence. Both quick start and quick stop is required. If the pulse
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train is interrupted while the motor is running the motor should be capable of stopping at the
position specified by the last pulse. Generally the highest the ratio of torque to rotor inertia the
better is dynamic behavior of the motor. Step motor performance is well defined by torque vs.
speed characteristics, oscillatory response to a single step and step length error. Therefore the
laboratory stand for testing stepper motor should enable to measure, evaluate and draw these
parameters and characteristics.

3.4.1 OSCILLATORY RESPONSE TO A SINGLE STEP

There are several stepper motor constructions classified as permanent magnet, reluctance
and hybrid type machines. Despite of the type difference stepper motor motion equation is as
follow:

d 2 d d
J 2
D  M t sign  T0  Te , (3.2)
dt dt dt
where: J - moment of inertia,
D - fluid friction coefficient,
Mt - moment of dry friction,
T0 – load,
Te - torque produced.

Torque produced by stepper motor is the first derivative from magnetic energy W
accumulated in motor in respect to the rotor angular position:

W 1 
Te   i (3.3)
 2 
were:  - magnetic flux linkage with phase winding,
i - phase current.

Dependence of static synchronous torque on angular rotor position is called angular

characteristic of stepper motor (Fig.3.13).

Fig.3.13. Typical shapes of angular characteristics of stepper motor with symmetrical teeth.
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Angular characteristic delivers information about forces that react on rotor for chosen
angular position. These forces tend to align rotor and stator teeth.

Primary cause of rotor mechanical oscillations is far quicker change of electromagnetic

flux than rotor angular position change. In this case the surplus of energy that is introduced
into the motor effects in mechanical oscillations. The smaller are electromagnetic time
constants and internal motor dumping the greater are oscillations.
Kinetic energy accumulated in rotating mass depends on the angular rotor position:
z
Wk   M ( z   )d (3.4)
0

As a result the rotor after reaching the align position (z) of its tooth with energized pole,
continues its movement in the area of reverse synchronizing torque. Rotor slows down to stop
and in this position (max) kinetic energy is equal to field energy:

 max
Wp   M (
z
z   )d (3.5)

and electrical and mechanical losses:

2 z  max

Wl   M (
z
z   ) d (3.6)

Then the rotor continues his movement backward. Oscillations around the align position
decay due to dissipation of surplus energy (Fig.3.14).

Fig.3.14. Energy dissipation and shaft oscillations around the align position.
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Oscillatory response to a single step can be described by logarithmic dumping decrement:

An
  log( ), (3.7)
An1

dumping oscillation frequency:

2
 , (3.8)
T

and free oscillation frequency:

1  2
n   , (3.9)
2
were: An - peak value of first cycle,
An+1 - peak value of second cycle,
T - time between first and second peak.

The most difficult from the point of view of motor control is the case when the input
pulses frequency is equal to the motor free oscillation frequency.

3.4.2 STATIC STEP ACCURACY

The angular position accuracy of a stepper motor varies from one step to the next. This
inaccuracy is influenced by the construction of the motor, the load it is driving, and the driver
attached to motor. Fig.3.15 is showing the min, max and average step response position
accuracy measured over one revolution.

Fig.3.15. Step response position accuracy measured over one revolution. The arrows indicate the peak to peak
static step accuracy at a point where the motor shaft has settled.
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3.4.3 MICRO-STEP ACCURACY

Micro-stepping is often used to position the shaft of a stepper motor between the full step
positions using the special way of phase sequencing that differentiate phase current.
Commutation cycle of four phase stepper motor supplying with two voltage levels as well as
magnetic field vector positions for full 360o electrical degree revolution (that is followed by
rotor) is presented in Fig.3.16. In this case number of steps is doubled comparing to “half
stepping” technique.

Fig.3.16. Commutation cycle with two supply voltage levels.

Fig.3.17. Ideal shaft position, actual shaft position and shaft. Fig.3.18. Voltage shape (drive system
position error. pulses) applying to two phase
windings that divide basic step in to 16
micro-steps
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As illustrated in the Fig.3.17, the shaft of a motor doesn't always follow the ideal
micro-step position dictated by the drive system. In this case, 256:1 microstepping was
applied to a 1.8° motor over one electrical cycle (4 full steps). The ideal shaft position (due to
drive system pulses), the actual shaft position were measured simultaneously at every micro-
step command for 1024 steps.
Micro-stepping accuracy is determined by the construction of the motor and the accuracy
of the driver. Micro-stepping is rarely more accurate than 1/10th of a step. Voltage shape
(drive system pulses) applying to two phase windings that divide basic step in to 16 micro-
steps is presented in Fig.3.18.

3.4.4 TORQUE VS. SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

Rotational speed is proportional to stepping rate and inversely proportional to the number
of steps per revolution. Mechanical characteristic consists of two areas limited by pull-in
torque and pull-out torque curves also known as slewing curves (Fig.3.19).

Fig.3.19. Torque vs. speed characteristics.

The pull-in torque depends on the total inertia and is a measure at which the motor can
start without losing steps. The pull-out torque represents the allowable load that can be
supplied at the motor maximum stepping rate after it has reached its speed. The area between
the curves (slew range) is the unstable range of the motor, in which the motor may tends to
fall out of step and stop.

3.5 COMPUTER AIDED TESTING OF STEPPER MOTOR

In general laboratory stand consists of two main parts „motor” and „computer” one
(Fig.3.20). „Motor” part is the set of several elements like tested step motor itself together
with electronic commutator and voltage supply unit, special mechanical arrangement that
allows locked rotor test, friction type braking torque device, gear that works together with
revolution to pulse converter and set of mirrors that enables to measure step angle.
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Fig.3.20. Schematic presentation of laboratory stand.

„Motor” side and „computer” side are electrically separated with the help of optocoupler
devices.

Fig.3.21. “Motor” part of laboratory stand.

1 – Base, 2 – Step otor EDS-18 model, 3 – Clutch, 4 – Device to evaluate static torque, 5 – Step number encoder,
6 – Baking torque device (friction type), 7 – Gear, 8 – Revolution/Pulse Converter (RPC)
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Fig.3.22. Universal couters arrangement.

„Computer” part is composed of PC type computer, universal counters card and

appropriate software. Five 16-bit counters are used to generate pulse frequency, to control
number of steps that are to be performed, to measure real time, and to measure forward and
backward angular shaft displacement (Fig.3.22).

3.5.1 SHAFT POSITION MEASUREMENT

There are several position sensing techniques available. The most widely used is
adaptation of revolution to pulse converter (RPC). It has some advantages over other position
sensing techniques like for example potentiometer technique. RPC requires only a counter to
pass data to the computer and since in the set of counters that is used to create pulse generator
there are some spare, implementation of RPC needs no additional equipment.
The highest number of pulses per revolution the highest shaft position measurement accuracy
can be achieved. But there is technical limitation concerning number of pulses per revolution
available in RPC. In this case RPC of 5000 pulses per revolution is used. To achieve
measurement error less then 0.2% in respect to one step the additional gear box between
motor shaft and RPC shaft is added.

3.5.2 SOFTWARE

In order to assure wide range of measurement system flexibility both counter drivers and
data acquisition software were written with help of Turbo Pascal/C and Matlab languages
respectively. This allow for easy extension of measurement and data processing procedures.
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Especially Matlab offers wide range of easy to use data visualisation procedures. Its Graphical
User’s Interface appears to be an ideal tool to create users friendly operation system.

Fig.3.21. Graphical User’s Interface window.

Angular shaft displacement measurement is presented.

3.5.3 ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT ACCURACY

During the experiment stepper motor performs two steps with the 2 Hz step rate.
Software sampling loop is organized in such a way that 1000 data samples are collected
during about 1.5 sec. Due to existing gear 3o rotation of stepper motor shaft (equivalent to
single step) is transformed into:

3o * D/d = 3o * (30 [cm]/1.952 [cm]) = 46.511o, (3.10)

of RPC shaft rotation,

were: D – diameter of stepper motor shaft gear wheel,

d – diameter of RCP shaft gear wheel.
That means that change of the shaft angular position after performing one step is coded by
number:

E((Np/360o) * 46.511o) = E((5000/360o) * 46.511o) = 646, (3.11)

of pulses,
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where: Np – number of pulses generated by RPC during one full rotation of its shaft.

So resolution with witch the shaft actual position can be determined is equal to:

3o / 646 = 0.00464o, (3.12)

and accuracy is equal to 0.1548 % in respect to one step.

Counter 3, the real time counter increases its value every 10-5 s. (input frequency =
100 kHz). The real time evaluation accuracy is:

(10-5 [s] * 100%)/1 [s] = 0.001%, (3.13)

in respect to two registered steps performed with step rate of 2 Hz. Accuracy of measurement
of mean sampling period is as follow:

(10-5 [s] * 100%)/(1 [s]/Ns) = (10-5 [s] * 100%)/(1 [s]/1000) = 1%, (3.14)
where: Ns – number of data samples.