EE 3033: ELECTRICAL

MACHINES & DRIVES III

ASSIGNMENT 2

NAME : B.P.M.Karunarathna

INDEX NO : 130275A

DATE OF SUB : 27/06/2017

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 CONTENT

1. Introduction 03
2. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor(VRSM) 04

2.1 Construction 04

2.2 Operation 05

2.3 Basic Control 06

2.4 Performance 07

2.5 Applications of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 07

3. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (PMSM) 08

3.1 Construction 08

3.2 Operation 08

3.3 Basic Control 09

3.4 Performance 10

3.5 Applications of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 10

4. Hybrid Stepper Motor (HSM) 11

4.1 Construction 11

4.2 Operation 12

4.3 Basic Control 12

4.4 Performance 12

4.5 Applications of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 13

5. References 13

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 1. Introduction
Stepper is a special type of motor which changes the angular position of the rotor in “steps”.
The position and the speed of the rotor can be controlled accurately without any feedback
mechanism. It can rotate required number of steps as commanded and then stops. Stepper
motors are widely used in open loop control system due to its high accuracy and the
expensiveness of position sensors such as optical encoders. Stepper motors are commonly used
in medical, satellites, robotic and control applications. Stepper motors have several advantages
over conventional motors.
 High accuracy
 High reliability because they are brushless
 Load independency: stepper motors rotate at set speed without depending on the
load
 Holding torque: motor holds its position without brakes at each step
Sequencers and a drive are required to operate a stepper motor. Sequencer generates sequence
for switching which determines the direction of rotation and mode of operation. Driver is
required to change the flux direction in the phase windings.

Fig.1. Block diagram of a stepper motor

There are three types of stepper motors.
1. Variable reluctance stepper motor (VRSM)
2. Permanent magnet stepper motor (PMSM)
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor (HSM)
Definitions:
 Holding Torque: The torque which is produced by motor when rated current flowing
through the windings but the motor is at rest. This is the maximum torque that stepper
motor can produce.
 Detent Torque: The torque which is produced when the motor not energized. This
torque generated due to the magnetic force between stator and the permanent magnet.
(PMSM and HSM only)
 Basic Step Angle: Amount of rotation in degrees for one step

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 2. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor(VRSM)
Variable reluctance stepper motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound
stator. Stator windings are energized with a DC current hence they become magnetized. Then
soft-iron rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles causes to rotate the rotor to align
with the magnetic field. When the rotor aligns with the stator poles, the rotor is in the position
of minimum reluctance to the magnetic flux. There is no magnetic flux through the air gap
when the stator windings are not energized. So rotor can be rotate inside the stator winding
freely without feeling a force. Hence there is no “detent torque”. They provide less holding
torque at standstill compared to the permanent magnet type, but the dynamic torque
characteristics are better.

2.1 Construction
In the stator, windings are wound on a stack of silicon steel laminations. The number of
poles on the stator is equal to an even number. Each pole is wound with an exciting coil. These
coils are energized with a DC source with the help of solid state switches.
The rotor has no windings and is of salient pole type one which made from slotted steel
laminations entirely or may be solid in sometime. The rotor is constructed from a ferromagnetic
material. The rotor has teeth which are projected from the core can be solid or laminated and
they have the same width as the stator teeth. The number of rotor poles (teeth) differs to that of
stator poles. It provides the ability of self-start and bidirectional rotation of the motor. Generally
stepper motors are named as; no of stator poles/no of rotor poles and no of phases. As an
example, if a stepper motor has 6 stator poles, 4 rotor poles and 3 phases, it can be indicated as
“6/4 pole 3 phase motor”. The relation of stator poles to the no of stator poles and no of phases
can be given as;
𝑁
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑠 ± ( 𝑠 ) Where;
𝑞

Nr = no of rotor poles; Ns = no of stator poles; q = no of phases

If there are 6 poles in stator of a 3 phase motor, there can be either 4 or 8 poles in the rotor.

Fig.2. Winding arrangement of the stator

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 2.2 Operation
The operating principle of the stepper motor is that the electromagnet produced by
activating stator coils in sequence, attracts the metal bar (rotor) towards the minimum
reluctance path in the magnetic circuit. When a stator winding is energized, it produces its
magnetic field and develops its own magnetic poles. Because of the residual magnetism in the
rotor magnet poles, it will cause the rotor to rotate to a position where the minimum reluctance
is achieved. There for one set of rotor poles aligns with the energized set of poles of the stator.
There is enough force to hold the shaft from moving to the next position at this position of the
rotor.

Fig.3. Operation of variable reluctance stepper motor

Consider the Fig.3 given above. When the S1 switch is closed, coil A and A1 will be
energized causes them to be magnets. One of this coil will become a North Pole and other will
be the South Pole. The stator coil which is the North Pole will attract the closest rotor tooth
that has the opposite polarity. Likewise, the stator coil which has the South Pole will attract the
closest rotor tooth which has the opposite polarity. In this example, rotor teeth 1 and 3 align
with stator coil A and A1. Now S1 is opened and S2 is closed causes to coils B and B1 to be
energized. Since the closest rotor teeth to coil B and B1 are 2 and 4, they will align with B and
B1 by rotating the rotor by 30o clockwise. Similarly if the S2 is opened and S3 is closed, rotor
will rotate by another 30o clockwise. By this way rotor rotates clockwise or anticlockwise
direction successively exciting stator windings in a particular sequence. This angle of rotation
has defined as the step angle of the stepper motor.
Step Angle = 360o/(Nr x q) where Nr = no of rotor poles; q = no of phases
Therefore the step angle can be changed by varying the number of rotor poles and the number
of phases of the stepper motor.
According to the switching patters of energizing the stator windings, this angle of rotation can
be controlled.

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 2.3 Basic Control
There are three ways of controlling the rotation step of the stepper motor called as one
phase ON operation, two phase ON operation and half step.
 One phase ON operation
In One phase ON operation, only one stator winding is energized at a time. One pair of
stator windings are energized while others are keeping de-energized. For the next step, next
pair of stator windings will be energized while previously energized windings will be de-
energized. This sequence repeats and it will cause rotor to rotate in stepwise either in clockwise
or counterclockwise direction. Since only one pair of coils holds the rotor at a time, the torque
which can be produced by this controlling method is low compared to other two methods.
 Two phase ON operation
In this method, two pairs of stator coils are energized at a time. Therefore the rotor will
aligns with the resultant position of having minimum reluctance of the magnetic circuit. First
two pairs of windings are energized. Next one pair is de-energized while keeping the other is
energized and simultaneously next pair is energized. This switching sequence repeats and it
will cause rotor to rotate in stepwise either in clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Since
two pairs of windings hold the rotor at a time, the torque which can be produced by this
controlling method is the highest compared to other two methods.
 One-two phase ON operation (Half step)
First only one winding is energized. Then second one will be energized while keeping the first
one energized. This time two coils are energized. 3rd step is done by de energizing the first
winding only. See Fig.4.

Fig.4. Half step Switching Mode

From this switching sequence, the number of steps (resolution) of the stepper motor can be
doubled. This has a moderate torque capability compared to other two methods.
The drive circuits are used to change the current and flux direction in the phase
windings automatically. Driving a controllable amount of current through the windings and
thereby enabling maintain of short current rise and fall time is good for high speed performance.
The direction change is done by changing the current direction. This can be done by two
different methods called as “Unipolar” or “Bipolar”.

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• Unipolar Drive
Winding has three leads each at the end and one in the middle. Half of the winding only is used
in motor operation at any instant of time. To change the direction of rotation, end leads are
chosen and the current flows in the same direction
• Bipolar Drive
In bipolar winding current flows in both directions. The motor winding is fully energized by
turning on one set (top and bottom) of the switching transistors.
For variable reluctance stepper motors, unipolar drives are used.

2.4 Performance
Variable reluctance stepper motors are robust. Since they haven’t permanent magnets, the
field strength can be varied. Smooth movements can be obtained due to the absence of cogging
torque. It has a high torque to inertia ratio and high rates of acceleration. The dynamic response
of VR stepper motor is fast compared to PM stepper motors. Maximum stepping rate can be as
high as 1200 pulses per second. Very small step angles are possible with VR steppers. Also it
doesn’t have a “detent torque” which is the torque that the motor produces when it is not
energized. It is a simple and low cost motor.
The amount of torque for this type of motor is still small, so they are generally used for
small positioning loads. This type of stepper motor has high stepping rate and speed slewing
capability. VR stepper motors are involved with vibrations. It is a limitation of this motor. Also
it has very complex circuit, so the controllability is difficult.

2.5 Applications of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

 Industrial machines: Used in automotive gauges and machine tooling automated

production equipment
 Medical: used in medical scanners, samplers, fluid pumps, respirators and blood
analysis machinery
 Process Control: Used in conveyors, assembly lines, valve control, carbulator
adjusting and in-process gauging
 Machine tools: milling machines, drilling machines, grinding machines, lathe
machines, electron beam welder and laser cutting machines

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 3. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor(PMSM)
In the permanent magnet stepper motor, a permanent magnet is used as the rotor. The stator
is same as the variable reluctance stepper, which has stator windings. The rotor doesn’t have
rotor teeth as in the VR stepper. PM stepper motors provide improved torque characteristics
compared to VRSM, because of the increased magnetic flux intensity of the magnetized rotor
poles. PM stepper is also called as tin can stepper motor.

3.1 Construction
Construction of the stator is similar to the variable reluctance stepper motor. Stator core is
made by silicon steel laminations. Stator windings are wound on the slots which are spaced
equally around the stator. End terminals of these windings are brought out and connected to a
DC excitation via solid state switches in the drive circuit.
The rotor is made up of a permanent magnet materials such as Alnicos, ferrites, rare earths
(made from samarium cobolt or neodymium-iron-boron). Usually the shape of the rotor is a
smooth cylindrical type. The rotor is designed with even number of permanent magnetic poles
with alternate North and South polarities.

Fig.5. Cross section of a permanent magnet stepper

3.2 Operation

Fig.6. Magnetic flux path variation

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 When a winding of a stator is energized with a DC supply, it produces magnetic flux and
forms North and South poles. Then South Pole of the permanent magnet is attracted to the
North Pole and North Pole of the permanent magnet is attracted to the South Pole of the
energized winding producing the minimum reluctance path for the magnetic circuit. See Fig.6.
The rotor can rotate clockwise or anticlockwise according to the switching patters of the stator
windings. Also the angle of rotation (basic step angle) can be varied.

Fig.7. Operation of PM stepper motor

Fig.7 illustrates a typical step sequence for a two phase PM stepper motor. In Step 1 phase
A of a two phase stator is energized. This magnetically locks the rotor in the position shown.
When phase A is turned off and phase B is turned on, the rotor rotates 90° clockwise. In step
3, phase A is turned on but with the polarity reversed from Step 1, this causes another 90°
rotation. In Step 4, phase A is turned off and phase B is turned on, with polarity reversed from
Step2. Repeating this sequence causes the rotor to rotate clockwise in 900 steps.

3.3 Basic Control

As in the previous case of variable reluctance stepper motor, here also rotation of step can
be controlled by varying the sequence of supplying energy to the stator coils. Three modes of
operation are possible called as one phase ON operation, two phase ON operation and Half
step.
In one phase ON operation, only one winding is energized at a time and PM rotor aligns
with its magnetic field. Second coil is energized while de-energizing the previous coil. Now
rotor aligns with the magnetic field of the next coil. This process repeats.
In two phase ON operation, two coils are energized simultaneously at a time. So the Pm
rotor aligns with the resultant direction in between these two coils having the minimum
reluctance for the magnetic circuit. In the next step, one of the previously excited coil, de-
energized and next coil is energized. This process continuous and rotor rotates in stepwise.

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 Half step is a combination of above two modes. First one coil is energized. Then the next
coil is excited while keeping the first coil. Then first coil de-energized. This sequence repeats
and this will cause the rotor to rotate in two times more steps than other two modes of operation.
For permanent magnet stepper motors, either unipolar or bipolar drives can be used to
control the excitations.

3.4 Performance
Permanent magnet stepper motor produces higher torque than variable reluctance stepper
motor per ampere stator current. It has a higher holding torque, therefore it is suitable for high
torque applications. It has the highest detent torque compared to other types, so it is the main
advantage of the PM stepper.
Permanent magnet stepper motors have several limitations too. PM stepper motor has a
higher inertia, thus torque to inertia ratio is low. Therefore acceleration is very slower. It is
very difficult to manufacture a small permanent magnet rotor having many number of poles.
Thus the step angle of PM stepper motors are relatively higher ranging from 30o to 90o.
Maximum stepping rate is also low compared to VR stepper motors around 300 pulses per
second. Also the dynamic response of the motor is also low. Another disadvantages are the
limited output power and the fixed rated torque.

3.5 Applications of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

 Commonly used in robotics applications in positions where bending movement is

required.
 Used in business machines such as copy machines, banking systems and type
writers for paper feeding and paper positioning applications.
 Used in industry for process controlling applications such as valve controlling,
conveyors and assembly lines controlling in various machines which position
control is required.
 Used in computer peripherals such as in printers, floppy discs and plotters

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 4. Hybrid Stepper Motor(HSM)
Hybrid stepper motor is the most popular stepper motor which provides better performance
than other two types. Hybrid stepper motor is a combination of principles of variable reluctance
and permanent magnet stepper motors. The main advantage of Variable reluctance stepper is
the ability of having stepper angles while the main advantage of permanent magnet stepper is
the high toque capability. So hybrid stepper is constructed to both these advantages in one unit.
They are used in applications where very small stepper angle is required (1.5o, 1.8o, 2.5o)

4.1 Construction
Construction of stator is same as the construction of the stator of either VR or PM stepper
motor. Stator core is made by steel laminations and slots are equally spaced over the stator.
The main difference of the stator is that hybrid stepper motor has coils of two different phases
wound on the same pole. Usually two coils at a pole is referred as the “bifilar” connection.
The rotor consists of a permanent magnet which is magnetized in axial direction by creating
the North and the South Poles. Each pole is covered by uniformly spaced teeth which are made
up from soft steel. The teeth on the two sections of each pole are misaligned with each other
by a half-tooth pitch. These end sections are magnetized by the respective polarities of the axial
magnet.

Fig.8. cross view and axial view of hybrid stepper motor

Fig.9. Materials used to construct different parts of HSM

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 4.2 Operation
This motor works similar to that of permanent magnet stepper motor. Torque is created in
the hybrid motor by the interaction of the magnetic field of the permanent magnet and the
magnetic field produced by the stator.

Fig.10. Operation of HSM

Consider the Stepper motor given in Fig.10. When the phase A-A1 is energized with a DC
supply, keeping B-B1 de-energized, the rotor aligns such that the south pole of the rotor faces
North Pole of the stator and North Pole of the rotor aligns with South Pole of the stator. Next
if the phase B-B1 is excited while A-A1 is switched off, such a way that upper pole becomes
North Pole and the other becomes South Pole, then the rotor will rotate counterclockwise
direction and aligns in the same way as above in a new position. If the phase B-B1 would have
excited in opposite way by having South Pole of the stator in on the upper pole, then the rotor
would have rotate in clockwise direction. By a proper pulses to the stator, the motor will rotate
in the desired direction. For every excitation, the rotor will get locked into a new position and
even if the excitation is removed, motor still maintains its lock condition due to the permanent
magnet of the rotor. Generally hybrid motors are constructed with more number of rotor teeth
in order to have a higher angular resolution (smaller step angle).

4.3 Basic Control

Basic operation modes which are already described in previous types are also valid for
hybrid stepper motor. One phase ON operation, two phase ON operation and half step are
possible with hybrid stepper motors.
For hybrid stepper motors, bipolar drives can be used to control the excitations for the
stator.

4.4 Performance
Very small step angles can be achieved with hybrid stepper motor which can’t be achieved
by permanent magnet stepper motors. As compared to variable reluctance stepper motor,
hybrid steppers require less excitation to achieve a given torque. Also HSM develops a good
detent torque which is provided by the permanent magnet flux. This detent torque helps to hold
the shaft even when the excitation is removed. This is very important because if the power fails

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when the motor is operation, it will not cause any damage because it can hold the load without
any supply. There is no cumulative error involved with hybrid stepper motors.
There are some limitations with hybrid stepper motors such as presence of resonance and
vibrations when operating.

4.5 Applications of Hybrid Stepper Motor

 Industrial Applications: high speed pick and place equipment, multi axis CNC
machines, directly driving lead screws and ball screws.
 Optical Applications: linear actuators, linear and rotation stages, goniometers and
mirror mounts.
 Commercial Applications: floppy disk driver, printers, image scanners and CD ROMs
 Packaging machinery

5. References

 http://www.electricaltechnology.org/2016/12/stepper-motor-construction-types-and-
modes-of-operation.html
 Shodhganga. THEORY OF STEPPER MOTOR
 Fr. Agnel’s Gyan, Stepper Motor Theory of Operation
 www.nct-tech.edu.lk>Downloads>Stepping_motros.pdf

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