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PAVEMENT DESIGN – 21CV743

Module – 3

Flexible Pavement Failures, Maintenance and Evaluation

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 1

The term flexible pavement failure is defined by the localized depressions or settlements. The depressions are normally followed
by heaving in the vicinity and the sequence ultimately leads to the formation of a wavy pavement surface. The localized depression
may develop due to the failure of any component layer of the flexible pavement structure. Figures below show respectively
failures in flexible pavements due to failure in the subgrade, failure in base or sub-base course, and failure in wearing course.

It is therefore absolutely necessary to see that each layer is properly designed and laid so that it is stable within itself and thus
assists in the overall stability of the flexible pavement. The arrows in the figures indicate the direction of upheaval due to the
movement of material from the layer.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 2

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(i) Failures in subgrade:

Following are the two main reasons for failures in the subgrade:

(a) Excessive stress application: If the pavement thickness is inadequate or the loads are in excess of the design value,
the excessive stress is developed and it harms as load repetitions are increased.

(b) Inadequate stability: The resistance to deformation. under stress is known as stability. The inadequate stability of
the subgrade is developed due to the inherent weakness of the soil itself or excessive moisture or improper compaction.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 3

(ii) Failures in sub-base or base courses:

The main reasons which contribute to the failures in sub-base or base courses can be mentioned as follows:
(a) Inadequate strength: The poor mix proportioning or inadequate thickness of pavement may lead to the lack of
stability or strength of sub-base or base course.
(b) Inadequate wearing course: If the wearing course is of inadequate thickness or if it is totally absent, the sub-base or
base courses are exposed to the damaging effects of the climatic agencies and the traffic.
(c) Lack of lateral confinement: If lateral confinement is not provided for granular sub-base or base courses, the action
of traffic causes the materials of these courses to spread out.
(d) Loss of binding action: The repeated stress applications lead to the internal movements of aggregate in sub base or
base courses and ultimately the composite mass or structure of the layers gets disturbed. Thus the loss of binding action
is developed and it leads to the low stability and poor load transmitting property of the pavement layer.
(e) Loss of materials: If the base course is not covered with a wearing course or if the wearing course has completely
worn out, there are chances of loss of base course materials due to action of traffic and it leads to the formation of pot
holes on the surface. Use of inferior materials: If the materials employed in the construction of flexible pavements do not
comply with the standard requirements, the structural behavior of the pavement is affected.

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SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 5

(iii) Failures in wearing course:

The failures in wearing course are attributed to the following reasons:
(a) Lack of proper mix design: If the mix design does not provide for adequate binder content, the bituminous surface
will exhibit poor performance under the action of traffic.
b) Quality control: It is necessary to provide a high degree of quality control in bituminous construction. The resulting
paving mix should contain just enough binder content only.
(c ) Volatilization and oxidation of binder: The bituminous surface becomes brittle due to volatilization and oxidation
of binder. It results in the cracking of the pavement surface which further permits the seepage of rainwater to cause
damage to the underlying layers.

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Types of Failures

Following are some of the typical flexible pavement failures:

1. Alligator or map cracking
Other types of failures in flexible pavement:
2. Raveling
• Bleeding
3. Rutting
• Block Cracking
4. Corrugations • Joint Reflection Cracking
5. Edge breaking • Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off

6. Wavy surface • Longitudinal Cracking

• Patching/Patching Deterioration
7. Shear failure
• Polished Aggregates
8. Reflection cracks
• Slippage Cracking
9. Potholes • Stripping
10. Depression • Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 7

(1) Alligator or map cracking:

The alligator or map cracking of the surface course occurs in the pattern as shown in figure.
This is the most common type of flexible pavement failure and occurs due to relative movement of pavement layer materials. This
may be caused by the repeated application of heavy wheel loads resulting in fatigue failure or due to the moisture variations
resulting in swelling and shrinkage of subgrade and other pavement materials. Localized weakness in the underlying base course
would also cause a cracking of the surface course in this pattern.

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Causes of Alligator or map cracking:

• Repeated application of wheel loads on such weak pavements will lead to development of cracks in the pavement surface.
• If weak flexible pavement is not strengthened with a suitable overlay as soon as initial cracks are observed, the cracks will
widen, get interconnected and for alligator cracks.

Measures of Alligator or map cracking:

• The damaged bituminous pavement layer with extensive cracks is carefully removed without disturbing the base course
underneath.
• After applying the prime coat or tack coat, additional strengthening layers, such as a bituminous binder course and surface
course are constructed.
• Alternatively cracks retarding layer such as suitable geo-synthetic layer may be laid and a bituminous overlay laid above.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 9

(2) Raveling:
The aggregates of the surface getting gradually loosened from the surface due to moving traffic is called as raveling. Raveling is
known as the deterioration of pavement by the loss of asphalt and rocks. This is evident by the rocks and sand on the pavement
surface and in gutters. Over a period of time, the thickness of the pavement begins to dwindle away, until the entire pavement has
eroded completely.

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Causes of Raveling:
• Construction during wet weather conditions leading to improper coating of aggregates by the bitumen binder or stripping of
binder from aggregates.
• Insufficient binder content in the mix.
• Improper gradation of aggregates or segregation of the mix during laying.
• Over heating of the binder or the bituminous mix.

Measures:
• At the initial stages –
o Surface is cleaned to remove loose particles and dust.
o A suitable type of liquid seal coat or slurry seal is applied on the surface.
• If raveling has progressed –
o Removing loose particles and dust.
o Application of adequate quantity of tack coat.
o Resurfacing with bituminous mix of required thickness.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 11

(3) Rutting:
Rutting is the longitudinal deformation or depression of the pavement surface along the wheel paths of heavy vehicles. A rut is a
permanent, longitudinal surface depression that occurs in the wheel paths of a flexible asphalt road surface due to the passage of
traffic. Ruts accumulate incrementally: every time a heavy vehicle passes a small, permanent deformation or consolidation is
caused.

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Causes of Rutting:
• Inadequate stability of subgrade or sub-base or base course or surface course
• Inadequate compaction of subgrade or any of the pavement layers.
• Movement of heavy wheel loads causing vertical strain on subgrade.
• Improper specifications or design of bituminous mix.
• Inadequate thickness of flexible pavement or weak pavement structure.

Measures:
• Cleaning the affected surface.
• Application of tack coat covering the rut.
• Filling the rut using either a dense graded bituminous mix or open graded pre mix followed by seal coat.
• Compacting by rolling.
• Providing a thin bituminous resurfacing course to achieve good riding quality.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 13

(4) Corrugations:
Small undulations of depth up to 25mm on the bituminous surface in the form of ripples is called as corrugations. Corrugation is a
series of closely spaced ridges and valleys (ripples) occurring at fairly regular intervals (usually less that 5 ft [1.5 m]) along the
pavement. The ridges are perpendicular to the traffic direction. Traffic action combined with an unstable pavement surface or base
usually causes this type of distress.

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Causes:
• Excess binder content in bituminous mix.
• Excess proportions of fines in mix.
• Use of binder of low viscosity.
• Use of smooth textured gravel / course aggregates in mix.
• Initial undulation due to improper or faulty laying.
• Oscillations and impact caused by traffic moving on corrugated surface.

Measures:
• In case of thin bituminous surfacing with corrugations, it is advantageous to scarify and remove the thin surfacing along with
top portion of the existing base course and recompact the material. After applying prime coat and tack coat bituminous surface
course may be laid.
• In case of thick bituminous surfacing with corrugation, the high spots may be cut using the blades of a drag spreader or using a
milling machine. A suitable type of bituminous mix applied and compacted thoroughly.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 15

(5) Edge Breaking:

The soil from the earth shoulders of flexible pavements often get eroded along the pavement edges due to rapid flow of surface
water during heavy rains.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 16

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Causes:
• Breaking up of edges of the pavement layers may takes place in such circumstances, mainly due to inadequate lateral support to
the pavement edges.
• Infiltration of water through the pavement edges softens the soil subgrade and accelerates further damages to the pavement
edges.

Measures:
• Affected portion of pavement edges are cut vertically up to the required width and depth and materials are removed.
• The pavement layers and the shoulder are simultaneously laid using appropriate materials and compacted.
• It is desirable to make use of appropriate soil stabilization technique.
• The finished cross slope of the shoulders may be kept one percent higher than that of the pavement.
• It is desirable to provide paved shoulders for the required width.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 17

(6) Wavy Surface:

Large deformations formed along the road surface due to settlement or upheavals results in a wavy surface and the riding quality is
adversely affected at high speeds

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 18

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Causes:
• Inadequate compaction to the fill.
• Use of highly compressible soil in the fill or subgrade.
• Presence of excessive moisture in the subgrade due to ineffective subsurface drainage system.
• ‘Frost heaving’ at frost susceptible regions.
• Inadequate pavement thickness for the prevailing traffic loads.

Measures:
• Use of highly compressible soil or inadequate compaction resulting in weak fill, it is necessary to excavate and remove the
pavement layers and then the defective fill up to the full depth.
• In case of lack of drainage, new surface and sub-surface drainage system has to planned and constructed before reconstructing
new layers.
• If it is due to insufficient pavement thickness, the failure is likely to start from the subgrade, it is necessary to remove all the
existing pavement layers including the subgrade soil.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 19

(7) Shear Failure:

Two types of shear failure may takes place in flexible pavement due to very heavy traffic loading –

1. The overall pavement structure including the subgrade soil are very weak with respect to the present traffic loading,
shear failure of the pavement structure itself takes place, starting from the subgrade soil.

2. The pavement structure is inadequate, but the shear failure is limited to the bituminous surface only.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 20

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Causes:
• In type 1, shear failure is indicated by a deep and large settlement or depression and upheaval adjacent to the depression. Total
shear failure of the pavement generally takes place in very weak pavements laid on poor subgrade soil with high moisture
content.
• In type 2, shear failure is limited to bituminous concrete surface only. Because of the inadequate thickness of surface course or
use of poor material or due to heavy wheel load.

Measures:
• In case of total shear failure of the flexible pavement starting from the subgrade soil, the only solution is total re-construction of
the entire flexible pavement structure after redesigning.
• In case of shear failure is confined to bituminous surface course, the remedial measures consists of:-
o Milling and removing the defective surface up to binder course.
o Recompacting the surface and finishing to required profile.
o Application of tack coat.
o Laying of a new layer of bituminous concrete surface course.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 21

(8) Reflection cracks:

When the crack pattern on a bituminous surface course is almost the same pattern and location as the cracks of the lower pavement
layer, the cracks are known as reflection cracks or sympathetic cracks

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 22

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Causes:
• Reflection cracks are formed above the cracks and joints of these old rigid or semi-rigid pavement.
• If the cracks of an existing pavement are not properly treated or if other crack relieving or retarding measures are not adopted,
these cracks will propagate upwards through the bituminous surfacing laid above.

Measures:
• If the pavement is structurally sound and fine cracks are formed only on the surface course, the treatment is crack sealing.
• Very fine cracks are sealed by applying bitumen emulsion of appropriate grade or fog seal after cleaning the surface to remove
loose particles.
• If the pavement is structurally inadequate to withstand the present traffic, a suitable overlay may be designed and constructed
after treating the cracks.
• If the pavement is structurally adequate and cracks of medium width are formed on the surface, the loose materials and dust are
removed and the binder is poured.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 23

(9) Potholes:
Potholes are small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down to
the base course. They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely to occur on
roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA
surfaces.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 24

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Causes:
• Reflection cracks are formed above the cracks and joints of these old rigid or semi-rigid pavement.
• If the cracks of an existing pavement are not properly treated or if other crack relieving or retarding measures are not adopted,
these cracks will propagate upwards through the bituminous surfacing laid above.

Measures / Repair:
• In accordance with patching techniques.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 25

(10) Depression:
Depression is defined as localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the surrounding pavement.
Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 26

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Causes:
• Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate compaction during construction.

Measures / Repair:
• Depressions should be repaired by removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of poor subgrade.
Patch over the repaired subgrade.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 27

PAVEMENT EVALUATION
• Pavement evaluation is conducted to determine functional and structural conditions of a highway section
either for purposes of routine monitoring or planned corrective action.

• All the pavements deteriorate with time, with repeated application of vehicular loads and due to effect of
vehicular parameters.

• The rate of deterioration depends on the initial condition, traffic loading, climatic condition and other
parameters.

• Need for maintenance and rehabilitation can be assessed on the basis of evaluation.

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Need of Pavement Evaluation

• At the network level, routine evaluations can be used to develop performance models and prioritize
maintenance or rehabilitation efforts and funding.

• At the project level, evaluations are more focused on establishing the root causes of existing distress in
order to determine the best rehabilitation strategies.

Methods of Pavement Evaluation

• Structural condition : It is concerned with the structural capacity of the pavement as measured by deflection,
layer thickness, and material properties.

• Functional condition : It is primarily concerned with the ride quality or surface texture of a highway section.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 29

Structural Evaluation of pavement

• It is related to the structural soundness of the structure or the load carrying ability of the structure.

• It can be measured normally in terms of the response of the pavement when it is subjected to a load.

• Structural evaluation of pavements can be done either destructive test or non-destructive test.

Destructive Test

• Destructive test provides more detailed data about the pavement which is not possible to obtain through non-
destructive test.

• Bitumen extraction test :

 It is a quality control test which provides methods of extracting the bitumen from the mixed material.

 This test is done to determine the bitumen content of the pavement as per ASTM 2172.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 30

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Non Destructive Test

• Non-destructive test is the collective term for evaluations conducted on an existing pavement structure that do
not require subsequent maintenance work to return the pavement to its pre-testing state.

• Some of the Non Destructive Tests (NDT) are as follows :

a) Benkelman Beam Deflection method (BBD)

b) Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

c) Ground Penetration Radar method (GPR)

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 31

BENKLEMEN BEAM DEFLECTION METHOD

This method of test covers a procedure for the determination of the rebound deflection of pavement under static load of the rear
axle of a standard truck.

Equipment

The equipment shall include:

(1) Benkelman Beam
(a) Length of probe arm from pivot to probe point 244 cm
(b) Length of measurement arm from pivot to dial 122 cm
(c) Distance from pivot to front legs 25 cm
(d) Distance from pivot to rear legs 166 cm
(e) Lateral spacing of front support legs 33 cm

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SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 33

(2) A 5 ton truck is recommended as the reaction. The vehicle shall have 8170 kg rear axle load equally distributed over the two
wheels, equipped with dual tyres. Spacing between the tyre walls should be 30-40 mm. The tyres shall be 10 x 20, 12 ply inflated
to a pressure of 5.60 kg/cm² . The use of tyres with tubes and rib treads is recommended.

(3) Tyre pressure measuring gauge.

(4) Thermometer (0-100°C) with 1° division

(5) A mandral for making 4.5 cm deep hole in the pavement for temperature measurement. The diameter of the hole at the surface
shall be 1.25 cm and at bottom 1 cm.

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PROCEDURE

(1) The point on the pavement to be tested is selected and marked. For highways, the point should be located 60 cm from the
pavement edge if the lane width is less than 3.5 m and 90 cm from the pavement edge for wider lanes. For divided four lane
highway, the measurement points should be 1.5 m from the pavement edge.

(2) The dual wheels of the truck are centered above the selected point.

(3) The probe of the Benkelman beam is inserted between the duals and placed on the selected point.

(4) The locking pin is removed from the beam and the legs are adjusted so that the plunger of the beam is in contact with the stem
of the dial gauge. The beam pivot arms are checked for free movement.

(5) The dial gauge is set at approximately 1 cm. The initial reading is recorded when the rate of deformation of the pavement is
equal or less than 0.025 mm per minute.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 35

(6) The truck is slowly driven a distance of 270 cm and stopped.

(7) An intermediate reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of the pavement is equal to or less than 0.025 mm per minute.

(8) The truck is driven forward a further 9 m.

(9) The final reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of pavement is equal to or less than 0.025 mm per minute.

(10) Pavement temperature is recorded at least once every hour inserting thermometer in the standard hole and filling up the hole
with glycerol.

(11) The tyre pressure is checked at two or three hour intervals during the day and adjusted to the standard, if necessary.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpMmLgwZADE

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 36

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SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 37

FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTO METER

Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is an impulse-loading device in which a transient load is applied to the pavement and the
deflected shape of the pavement surface is measured. The working principle of a typical FWD is illustrated in figure. DO, D1, etc.,
mentioned in figure are surface deflections measured at different radial distances. Impulse load is applied by means of a falling
mass, which is allowed to drop vertically on a system of springs placed over a circular loading plate. The deflected shape of the
pavement surface is measured using displacement sensors which are placed at different radial distances starting with the center of
the load plate. Trailer mounted as well as vehicle mounted FWD models are available commercially.

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The working principle of all these FWD models is essentially the same. A mass of weights is dropped from a pre-determined
height onto a series of springs/ buffers placed on top of a loading plate. The corresponding peak load and peak vertical surface
deflections at different radial locations are measured and recorded.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 39

Different magnitudes of impulse load can be obtained by selection of a suitable mass and an appropriate height of fall. Under the
application of the impulse load, the pavement deflects. Velocity transducers are placed on the pavement surface at different radial
locations to measure surface deflections. Geophones or seismometers are used as displacement transducers. Load and deflection
data are acquired with the help of a data acquisition system.

Typical Falling Weight Deflectometers (FWD) include a circular loading plate of 300 or 450 mm diameter. In these guidelines 300
mm diameter load plate is recommended. A rubber pad of 5 mm minimum thickness should be glued to the bottom of the loading
plate for uniform distribution of load. Alternatively, segmented loading plates (with two to four segments) can be used for better
load distribution.

A falling mass in the range of 50 to 350 kg is dropped from a height of fall in the range of 100 to 600 mm to produce load pulses
of desired peak load and duration. Heavier models use falling mass in the range of 200 to 700 kg. The target peak load to be
applied on bituminous pavements is 40 kN (+/- 4 kN), which corresponds to the load on one dual wheel set of a 80 kN standard
axle load. The target peak load can be decreased suitably if the peak maximum (central) deflection measured with 40 kN load
exceeds the measuring capacity of the deflection transducer.

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Similarly, the load can be increased to produce deflection of at least 10 µm at a radial distance of 1.2 m. If it is known from
construction records or from coring or from test pits that subgrade is stiff and hence smaller than 10 µm deflections are expected,
testing with increased loads will not be required. If the applied peak load differs from 40 kN, the measured deflections have to be
normalized to correspond to the standard target load of 40 kN. The normalization of deflections can be done linearly. For example,
if the measured deflection is 0.80 mm for an applied peak load of 45 kN, the normalized deflection for a standard load of 40 kN is
0.711 mm (0.80 * (40/45)). The load cells used to measure load pulses produced by FWD should have a reading resolution of 0.1
kN or better and should give readings accurate to 2 percent of measured value.

The stiffness of bituminous layers and hence the response of a pavement depends on the pulse shape of the applied load (COST
336, 2005). Most FWDs have a load rise time (from start of pulse to peak) of between 5 ms and 30 ms and have a load pulse base
width in the interval of 20 ms to 60 ms (COST 336, 2005). The duration of impulse load is maintained approximately equal to the
time needed to traverse the length of a tyre imprint at a speed of about 60 km/h which is in the range of 20 to 30 ms. The FWDs
used for evaluation should be capable of producing load pulses with loading time in the range of 15 to 50 ms.

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 41

Sufficient number of deflection transducers should be used to adequately capture the shape of deflection bowl. Six to nine velocity
transducers (geophones) are generally adequate for measuring surface deflections of flexible pavements. Deflection sensors are
placed on the surface of pavement at different radial direction aligned in the longitudinal direction. The deflection transducers used
should have a reading resolution of at least 1 µm and should be accurate to +/- 2 percent of the reading. Typical geophone position
configurations (number and radial distances measured from center of load plate) commonly used for flexible pavement evaluation
are ;-
(i) 7 sensors at 0, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500 and 1800 mm radial distances
(ii) 7 sensors at 0, 200, 300, 450, 600, 900, 1500 mm radial distances
(iii) 6 sensors at 0, 300, 600, 900, 1200 and 1500 mm radial distances and
(iv) 6 sensors at 0, 200, 300, 600, 900, 1200 mm radial distances.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KDplKQwOAQ

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 42

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GPR (Ground Penetration Radar) Method

GPR is a nondestructive field test that can provide a continuous profile of existing road conditions. GPR can utilize high-speed
data collection at speeds up to 50 mph, thus requiring less traffic control and resulting in greater safety. GPR has the potential to be
used for a variety of pavement applications, including:
• Measuring the thickness of asphalt pavement, base and sub-grade
• Assisting in the analysis of rutting mechanisms
• Calculating and verifying material properties
• Locating subsurface objects
• Detecting stripping and/or layer separation
• Detecting subsurface moisture
• Determining depth to near-surface bedrock and peat deposits

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 43

GPR operates by transmitting short pulses of electromagnetic energy into the ground. The reflected images of these pulses are
analyzed using one-dimensional electromagnetic wave propagation theory. These pulses are reflected back to the antenna with
amplitudes and arrival times that are related to the dielectric constants of the material layers. Across the interfaces, part of the
energy is reflected and part is absorbed, depending on the dielectric contrast of the materials.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U32Id9EmC4g

SUPREETH, ASST. PROFESSOR, B.I.E.T, DVG 44

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