Mathematics

Geometric Shapes
Perpendicular
When two line intersect each other at right angle, they r called perpendicular to
each other.

90o

Ways to Draw a Perpendicular

We can draw a perpendicular by folding a paper edge to edge and draw lines along
the creases. We will get the perpendicular.

We can also draw a perpendicular by using Set Square and ruler.

If we r given a point outside a given line to draw the perpendicular, we can use
pencil compass and ruler or set square and ruler.

Possibilities with Perpendiculars

If we take a paper with a line segment drawn and fold the paper in a way that the
ends of the line coincide, then draw a line across the crease to form a
perpendicular. When we measure the line from the crease to the end of one side,
we will see that they r both equal.

Angles
How to form a duplicate of a given angle
We have an angle ABC with B as the vertex drawn on a paper. If we fold the paper
along the line AB and draw a line where it falls, then we form angle ABD and ABC. If
we measure, we will see that ABD and ABC r equal. So, we formed a duplicate of
the angle ABC.

How to bisect an angle

The angle ABC whose vertex is at B is drawn on a paper. Now, the paper is folded in
a way that the sides AB and BC coincide with each other. If we draw a line along the
formed crease, we will get the angle Bisector.

The two angles formed by the bisector r equal to each other.

Lines and Angles

We learn a lot about angles by using lines. Let’s see some of them-

Vertically Opposite Angles

A D

C B
Two lines, AB and CD intersect at O. if we draw it on a paper and fold along the point
O in a way that BO and CO coincides. We will see that AO and DO also coincides. So,
we can say that, AOC and BOD or the vertically opposite angles r equal.

So, when two straight lines intersect with each other at the same vertex, the
vertically opposite angles r equal.

Now, in a figure, the vertically opposite angles r not equal. Because, they r only
opposite angles.

2 1

Parallel Lines
When multiples straight lines have same space between them forever, they r called
parallel lines.

Learning about angles with a

Transversal
When one line intersect two or more lines (despite the fact that the lines r parallel),
the intersecting line is called a transversal.

When a transversal is on a non-parallel pair of line, nothing different is seen. But

when a transversal is on a pair of parallel lines, then a lot about angles can be
learned.

1 2

3 4
5 6
7 8
The pairs of angles which r located in similar spaces, they r called corresponding
angles to each other. Like, 1 and 5, both r above the line and left to the transversal.
So, they r called corresponding angles to each other. On the other hand, the
somewhat opposite angles r called alternate angles. We can see that, the
corresponding angles r equal and the alternate angles r also equal.

That means if the corresponding angle of 1 is 5 and the alternate angle of 5 is 3,

then 3 is also the alternate angle for 1.

To note, in a transversal, the sum of two interior angle of the same side is equal to 2
right angles or 1 straight angle.

Finding other angle’s value by using other angle in a

transversal
If we don’t know the value of an angle, we can find it out by using the value of its
alternating and corresponding angles.

Properties of Triangles
When an area is enclosed by three sides, that is called a triangular area and the
boundary is called a triangle.

The sum of the length of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.

Median of a Triangle
To find the median of one side of the triangle, the paper can be folded so that the
two vertices of the triangle meet. The formed crease is the median of the side of the
triangle.

Centroid of a Triangle
If we find the median of all the sides of a triangle, the median’s intersecting point is
the centroid of the triangle. If we make a hole in the centroid point and suspend a
string at it and hang it, we will see that the triangle is parallel to the ground.

Angle Bisector of a Triangle

To find the bisector of an interior angle of a paper triangle, the triangle has to be
folded in a way so that the two sides of the triangle coincide. The crease formed in
the middle is called the angle bisector of the triangle.

Relation among the angles of Triangle

1
6

5 2
3 2

3
4

1. The angles inside the triangle r called internal angles.

2. The angles outside the triangle r called external angles.
3. The angles next to an internal angle r called adjacent angles.
4. The adjacent angles of an interior angle r vertically opposite to each other
(equal).
5. The measure of one adjacent angle of an interior angle and the measure of
the internal angle itself is equal to 2 right angles or 1 straight
angle.(supplementary)
6. The sum of all the interior angles of a triangle is equal to 2 right angles or 1
straight angle.
7. The measure of 1 external angle Is equal to the sum of 2 internal angles.
 8. The angle opposite to the greatest side of the triangle is the greatest and the
side opposite to the smallest angle is the smallest side.

Congruence & Similarity

Congruence
Congruent means meeting together. When two geometric shapes r exactly the same
in all aspects, they r called congruent to each other.

Similarity
When two geometric shapes r similar only in the aspect of shape but not in size,
they r called similar.

Congruence
Superposition
When two geometric shapes r placed upon one another and they coincide, this
situation is called superposition. We will say that the geometric shape is
superposed on the other geometric shape.

Drawing & Finding Congruent Triangles without

Superposition Method
The triangle of which the congruent triangle is to be drawn is used for the info.

States

1. When the length two sides and the angle between them is known, then the
congruent angle can be drawn using ruler, protractor and pencil-compass.

Draw the first line with a ruler with the given length. Then using the protractor,
point out the given angle and draw a line bigger than the second line’s length.
Then using a compass (adjusted to the second length) is to be used to mark a
point on that line. Then the two remaining points r to be joined.
2. When the length of all the sides r known, then the congruent angle can be drawn
using ruler and pencil-compass.

Draw the first line segment. Then using the pencil compass (adjusted to the
length of the second line) an arc is to be drawn centring the mentioned point of
the drawn line. The same has to be done by cutting the arc drawn before. The
point has to be connected to the points of the drawn line segment.

3. If the value of two angles and the length of the side between them r known, then
the triangle can be drawn by using ruler and protractor.

A line is to be drawn with the given length. Then the two angles r to be drawn
using a protractor in a way that they intersect at a point. The congruent triangle
is drawn.

Another method is to divide an isosceles triangle into two. (mentioned in book Pg-
135)

In The Case of Quadrilaterals

When every corresponding side and one angle is equal, then the compared
quadrilaterals r equal.

Method: Constructing the first two lines and the angle between them (the given
angle). Then using a pencil-compass (adjusted to the other lengths), draw arcs
centring the drawn lines. Let the arcs overlap. Join the drawn lines with the point
by drawing the lines. Finish.

Similarity
Between a pair of similar geometric shapes, the length of the sides of the triangle r
rationally equal and the angles r completely equal.

That means, the triangle inside the setsquare and the triangle outside the setsquare
r equal.

The ratio of the sides of the triangle r all equal becoz only the size of the shape has
changed, but the angles of the shape has not changed. That means, the sides r only
multiplied and the shapes r rationally equal.

If the ratio of the sides of a pair of geometric shapes is 1, then the shapes r
congruent. So, we can say that congruence is a special case of similarity.

Finding Similar Triangles

In a pair of Triangles-

1. If the ratio of two sides of both the triangle r equivalent and the angle
between the angles is equal for the two triangles, then the triangles r
similar.
2. If the ratio of all three sides of both the triangles r equivalent, then the
triangles r similar.
3. If only the two angles from both the triangles r equal, the triangles r similar.

In The Case of Quadrilaterals

In a pair of quadrilaterals-

If the ratio of all the sides of both the quadrilaterals r equivalent and one angle is
equal, then the quadrilaterals r similar.

Binary Digits
Decimal Number System
The digit system normal ppl use is the Decimal Number System. Here, there r 9
digits which r- 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Binary System
The digit system computers use is called Binary System. Here, there r only two
digits which r- 0 and 1. Using these 2 digits, the computers give us information
through an output. Usually, these binary digits r called Bit by taking Bi from Binary
and t from Digit.

By using this digit system, the computer does the process by the method of the
guessing game (book pg-143). Here, the computer asks itself questions and
answers them with the help of 0 and 1 (0 means No and 1 means Yes).

Some Additional Info

There is a tribe namely Pihara in the Amazon jungle’s Brazilian portion. They r
separated from the present civilization. They have their own civilization. Their
language is also very limited, science is out of question. They only use 1 and 2 to
count. They call anything above 2 as ‘many’.
Counting Using Binary Digits
Using Cards
In the book, the method of using card is also shown here.

1 0 1 1 1

 The number of dots is doubling up after every card.

 The cards which have dots r called On Cards. It is shown as 1.
 The cards which don’t have dots r called Off Cards. It is shown as 0
 The number of cards represents the Bit value. In this case, this is a 5 Bit
Binary System.
 This set is showing a number which Is 23.
 Every number can be expressed in Bit system. In this, the Bit value may and
the Binary numbers may vary. Here, 23 is equal to 10111 in a 5 Bit system.

Using Bulbs
To count using bulbs, we can imagine the number of bulbs according to the number
of bit (Card). To show a card off, we can keep the bulbs turned off and to show the
cards on, we can turn the bulbs on.

Using Fingers
We can consider our fingers as the cards and imagine the dots (number) on fingers.
Number of fingers is equal to the number of Bits. We can express on and off by
raising the finger up and keeping it down respectively. One hand equals to 5 bits
and 2 hands equals to 10 bits. We can also count our toes to count even bigger
numbers.

Some Formulas for Binary Digits

To find the largest decimal number
2x-1=Largest decimal number. (x=Number in last bit)

This formula helps us to find the largest decimal number in any Bit number.

To find how many numbers can a Bit form

2x=Number of decimal numbers formable (x=Number of bit)

This formula helps us to find out the maximum number of decimal numbers
formable by a Bit.

Uses of Binary Digits

Measurement
We can use Bits for expressing measurements of weight, distance, speed etc.

For Example (in 5 Bit)

Decimal: A ribbon is 24 cm long.

Binary: A ribbon is 11000 (cm) long.

(In 6 Bit)

Decimal: Mahmud’s weight is 56KG

Binary: Mahmud’s weight is 111000 (KG).

(In 5 Bit)

Decimal: Rafi runs at a speed of 6KM/hour.

Binary: Rafi runs at a speed of 00110 (KM)/hour

Birthday Candles
We know that the number of candles placed on a birthday cake matches the age of
the person. But, this may need a lot of candles. If the birthday of Jamin (27 years)
celebrated on this rule, then we need to place 27 candles on the cake which is a
waste of candles and there might not be enough space for 27 candles. In this case,
we can express the age in Binary system. If we count Jamin’s age in 5 Bit, it is 11011.
That means, we only need 5 candles and one candle doesn’t even need to be lit. That
one candle can be used for other’s birthdays.

For Spelling Words

We often see that the serial no. of alphabets r used as codes. Y not express them in
Binary System. This is how the computers program the words.

We can express the alphabets in numbers through their serial no. We can then
express those numbers in Binary. We only need a 5 Bit system for expressing all
the 26 alphabets.

Examples

BINARY

B – 2 - 00010

I – 9 - 01001

B – 2 - 00010

A – 1 - 00001

R – 18 - 10010

Y – 25 - 11001

00010 01001 00010 00001 10010 11001 = BINARY

We can even make necklace with 2 different colours of petals for 1 and 0 and form
our name in Binary system by using the colours for 0 and 1 respectively. We can use
a different or smaller petal for the space.

Circle
Circle is an enclosed curved line which has the equal distance between the centre
point and any point on the line. Circle has uncountable sides and vertices.

Why a circle has uncountable sides and

vertices
As we can see in the diagram above, by keeping increasing the sides, the vertices
also increase. But at some point, the sides have increased so much that the number
of sides cannot be identified. That’s y, circle has uncountable sides and vertices.

Parts of a Circle

D
E

A
r
. r C

B
Centre Point of Circle
The dot in the middle of the circle (which is created automatically when the circle is
drawn with a pencil-compass) is known as the centre point. The distance between
any point on the curved line and this point is always equal. As it is seen in the pic,
the A, B and C lines r equally far from the centre point.

Circumference
The curved through which the circle is enclosed is called circumference.

Chord
When two points on the circumference r connected with a line, the line is called a
chord of the circle. Each chord divides the circle into two parts. Every chord divides
it unequally but only one divides it equally.
Diameter
The chord which goes through the centre point is called diameter. A diameter is
also a chord. Only this chord divides the circle into two equal halves. It is the
longest chord in a circle.

Arc and Semicircle

An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle. A non-diameter chord divides the
circle into two unequal parts. These parts r known as arcs. Arcs r of two types-

1. Minor Arc: The arc which is comparatively smaller is called the Minor Arc.
2. Major Arc: The arc which is comparatively larger is called the Major Arc.

A semicircle is an equal half of a circle. When the diameter divides the circle into
two, two semicircles r made.

Radius
A radius is the half of a diameter. Or, the line which connects the centre point and
any point on the circumference is called radius. Diameter is the double of the
radius. That means-

Here, radius = r and diameter = d.

Measuring the Parts of the Circle

Centre Point

Steps-
 1. Draw a square around the circle by taking measurements by putting a scale
under the circle and count from one end to another.
2. Draw two lines which intersect the corners of the square and they form a
perpendicular.
3. The intersection point of the two lines is the centre point.

A centre point of a circle or any object is the balanced point of the object. We can
test it by putting an object’s centre on our finger. Then we can see that the object
stays there for a long time if we don’t move too much. We can see this example with
the fish sellers in our country who take the pan on their head and walk steadily. The
pan does not fall off their head.

Circumference

The picture above shows the circumference of the circle. The black arrows r
pointed at a point on the circumference of the circle. The line is the length of the
circumference.

The measurement of the circumference is measured like a normal line but curved.
So, in the picture above, the red line is the circumference of the circle in a straight
line. The length of this red line is the length of the circumference.

1st Method

1. Cut out a circle by drawing it on hard paper (calendar, art paper etc.).
2. Then take another paper and draw a straight line with a convenient length.
3. Then take the circle and mark a point on the circumference of it.
4. Then place the point of the circle on the start of the line and rotate it along
the line until it reaches the point again. Mark the point where it falls.
5. Measure the marked line. The length of the line is the length of the
circumference of the circle.

That means, If a circular object (like a wheel) rotates, it crosses its circumference’s
length. That is, it achieves the distance of its circumference.

2nd Method
To measure the circumference of circular pillars and trees, we can use a rope.
So the rope needs to be brought around the pillar or the tree once. The point where
the two ends of the rope meet can be marked to ensure we don’t lose it. Then we
can measure the marked ends of the rope. This is the circumference of the pillar.

Another method is to use the formula,

Chord, Diameter and Radius

Chord can be measured by measuring the distance between the two points on the
circumference.

But measuring diameter is a little complex. By using the method to find the centre
point, we can also measure the diameter. By measuring a side of the square (which
encloses the circle), we can find the diameter.
If we have to find the diameter, we can first find the centre point and then draw a
chord through. That is, our diameter.

To measure the radius, we first need to measure the diameter. Then divide it by 2
(because radius is the half of diameter).

Ratio of Circumference & Diameter (π)

Relation between Circumference & Diameter
If we take a string and cut the length of the circumference of a given circle, then the
string is the length of the circumference. If we take this string and draw it over the
diameter and cut it every time it fits the diameter, we will see that the string has
been divided into 3 equal parts and little portion. That is, if the circumference is
drawn over the diameter, we will have 3 full diameters and a portion of the
diameter.

Pi π
We can see this thing is every circle no matter the size. That means, the ratio of
circumference and diameter is constant. This constant is expressed with the Greek
symbol π (pi). Greek letter π (pi) comes from Greek circumference. Probably,
William Jones used it for the first time in 1706.

That is,
if diameter = d and circumference = c, then ratio of c and d = or, .
As d = 2r (r = radius), then .
π = 3.14159265358 (the red coloured part is mostly needed)

Example: if radius of a circle = 2cm then circumference-

Mathematicians r trying to find the approximate value of π since the ancient times.
Great mathematician Archimedes determined the approximate value of π 3.1419 by
enclosing a polygon with 96 sides in a circle. Again, Newton calculated 15 digits of π
correctly. If the radius of a circle is 1 unit, then π is shown as the following figure-

(The picture is given in book pg-174)

Indian mathematician Sreenibas Ramanujan (December 22, 1887-April 26, 1920)

calculated up to a million digits after the decimal. But after the invention of
computers, a new wave has came to determine the approximate value of π. The
reality is π is an irrational number. For our daily needs, we only use the first two
digits after the decimal as the value of π=3.14. So we can say that
Circumference = 3.14 x diameter of circle.

Pi Day
American physicist, curator and artist at Science Museum of San Francisco of the
USA, Lawrence N. Shaw introduced Pi day celebration. It is celebrated on 14 th March
annually.

The American system of writing date is MM/DD/YYYY. So, the digit before the
decimal in Pi resembles March and the 2 digits after decimal resembles 14. So, 14 th
March was announced as National Pi Day in USA in 2009.

But along with Pi day, UNESCO declared 14 th March as the International Day of
Mathematics on its 40th general assembly.