CONTEMPORARY MATHEMATICS

PART I. CONTENT UPDATE

Introduction:
This part focuses on the concepts identified in the LET competencies for Gen Ed Mathematics. It provides a review of
the definitions, formulas, operations, postulates, and theorems in Geometry and Statistics. However, in an effort to
effectively guide students to a deeper understanding of the concepts involved, it begins with the foundations and
gives a wider, more comprehensive discussion than those specifically identified by the competencies.

GEOMETRY
Basic Definitions

Undefined terms – the basic geometric concepts for which no definitions are given. These are the points, lines and
planes.
Collinear points – points that lie on the same line
Coplanar points – points that lie on the same plane
Space – the set of all points
Line segment – a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points in between them.
Ray – a part of a line having one endpoint and extending infinitely in one direction.
Opposite rays – rays with a common endpoint but extending opposite directions.
Congruent segments – two segments having the same measure or length.
Angle – formed by two non-collinear rays with a common endpoint of the two rays is the vertex of the angle.

POSTULATES
Space contains at least 4 noncoplanar points.
Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
Every line contains at least two points.
Two points determine a line.
Three noncollinear points determine a plane.
If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point.
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

POLYGONS
Polygon – a closed plane figure formed by fitting together segments end to endwith each segment intersecting
exactly two others.
Diagonal of a polygon – a line segment that connects two non-consecutive vertices.
Convex polygon –no diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Concave polygon – at least one diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Equilateral polygon – all the sides have equal lengths.
Equiangular polygon – all the angles have equal measure.
Regular polygon – it is both equilateral and equiangular.
Interior angles of a polygon – the angles formed in the exterior of polygon when its sides are extended.

THEOREMS
Angle-Sum Theorem for Triangles: The sum of the measures of the three angles of any triangle is 180˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Quadrilaterals: The sum of the measures of the four angles of any quadrilateral is 360˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Polygons: The sum (s) of the measures of the interior angles of any polygon with n sides is
given by s = (n – 2)180˚.
Exterior Angle Theorem for Polygons: The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a convex polygon (one at
each vertex) is 180˚.

TRIANGLES
Classifying Triangles According to Sides
a. Scalene: No two of its sides are congruent.
b. Isosceles: At least two of its sides are congruent. The congruent sides are the legs. The third side is called
the base. The angle opposite the base is the vertex. The angles adjacent to the base are the base angles.
c. Equilateral: All of its sides are congruent.
Classifying Triangles According to Angles
a. Acute: all of its angles are acute.
b. Right: has one right triangle. The hypotenuse is the longest side.The legs are the other two sides.
c. Obtuse: one of its angles is obtuse.
d. Equiangular:all of its angles are congruent.
Secondary Parts of a Triangle
a. Altitude: a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the line that contains the opposite side.
b. Concurrent Lines: three or more lines that meet at the same point.

QUADRILATERALS
- A four-sided polygon.
Kinds of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if one of the following is satisfied:
1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
3. Both pairs of opposite angles are congruent.
4. Consecutive angles are supplementary.
5. Diagonals bisect each other.
6. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles.
A rectangleif and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the following is satisfied:
1. It has four angles.
2. Its diagonals are congruent.
A rhombus if and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the following is satisfied:
1. Its sides are all congruent.
2. Its diagonals are perpendicular
A square if it is both a rhombus and a rectangle.
A trapezoid if it has a pair of parallel sides. The parallel sides are the bases and the non-parallel sides are its legs. If
the legs are congruent, it is said to be an isosceles triangle.
A trapezoid is isosceles if it satisfies one of the following:
1. Its legs are congruent.
2. Each pair of base angles is congruent.
3. Diagonals are congruent.

CIRCLES
Circle: the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in the plane.
Radius: the line segment from the center to any point of the circle.
Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
Diameter: a chord containing the center.
Secant: a line that intersects the circle in two points.
Tangent: a line lying on the same plane as the circle that intersects the circle in exactly one point.
Point of Tangency: the point where the tangent touches the circle
Congruent circles: two or more circles having the same radius.
Concentric circles: two or more coplanar circles sharing the same center.

RELATIONS INVOLVING SEGMENT AND ANGLES

Segment-Addition Postulate:
Point Y is between X and Z if and only if X, Y, and Z are collinear and XY + YZ = XZ.
Midpoint of the Segment: a point that bisects a segment or divides a segment into two congruent segments.
Bisector of the Line Segment: a ray, line or line segment that contains the midpoint.
Angle Bisector: a ray that contains the vertex and divides the angle into two congruent parts.

PERPENDICULAR LINES AND BISECTOR OF A LINE

Perpendicular lines: two lines that intersect at right angles.
Perpendicular bisector of a segment: the line which is perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint.
Theorem: the shortest segment from a point to the line is the perpendicular segment.

ANGLE PAIRS
Adjacent angles: two angles with a common vertex, a common side, and no common interior points.
Supplementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 180˚.
Complementary Angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 90˚
Vertical Angles: two angles are vertical if and only if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays and their angles are
non-adjacent formed by two intersecting lines.
Linear pair: two angles which are adjacent and supplementary.
Theorems:
Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Complements of congruent angles are congruent.
Vertical angles are congruent.

ANGLES AND SIDES OF A TRIANGLE

Exterior angle of a triangle: an angle which forms a linear pair with one of the triangle’s interior angles.
Remote interior angles: two interior angles of the triangle not adjacent to the exterior angle.
Theorems:
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two remote interior
angles.
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side.
In a triangle, if one side is longer than the other side, the angle opposite the longer side is the larger angle
In a triangle, if one angle is larger than the other angle, the side opposite the larger angle is the longer side.

PARALLEL LINES AND TRANSVERSALS

Intersecting lines: coplanar lines having a point in common.
Perpendicular lines: lines that intersect at right angles.
Parallel lines: coplanar lines that do not intersect.
Skew lines: non-coplanar lines that do not intersect.
Transversal line: a line intersecting two or more coplanar lines at different points.
 1 2 Interior angles: ∠3, ∠4, ∠5, ∠ 6
3 4 Exterior angles:∠ 1,∠2, ∠ 7, ∠ 8
5 6 Corresponding angles:∠ 1∧∠5 , : ∠ 2∧∠ 6, : ∠ 3∧∠ 7, : ∠ 4∧∠ 8 7
8 Alternate Interior angles:∠ 3∧∠ 6, ∠ 4∧∠ 5
Alternate exterior angles: ∠ 1∧∠ 8, ∠ 2∧∠7
Same-side interior angles: ∠ 3∧∠ 5, ∠ 4∧∠ 6
Postulates:
If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then:
1. The alternate interior angles are congruent.
2. The corresponding angles are congruent.
3. The alternate exterior angles are congruent.
4. The same-side interior angles are supplementary.

COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a coin, rolling a die)
Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.
Example: in rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Sample point: an element of the sample space. E.g: In rolling a die, there are 6 sample points.
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC) – if a choice consists of k steps, of which the first can be
performed in n1 , for each of these the second can be performed in n 2 ways, for each of these the third can
be performed in n3 ways…., and for each of these the second can be performed in n kways, then the whole
choice can be made in n1, n2, n3…nkways.
Example: In how many ways can two dice fall? Ans.: 6 ● 6 = 36 ways
2. Permutation- an arrangement of objects wherein the order is important.
3. Linear Permutation – If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then the number of distinct
arrangements is given by the formula:
n!
n Pr , where n ≥ r
( n−r ) !
Example: In how many can the first, second and third winners may be chosen in a beauty pageant with 10
contestants?
10 !
10 Ρ3= = 10 • 9 •8 = 720 ways
( 10−3 ) !
4. Circular Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct arrangements is (n -1)!
Answer: (7 - 1)! = 6!
5. Permutation with Repetitions
The number of distinct permutation of n things of which p are of one kind, q are of a second kind…… r of a
kth kind is
n!
P= where p + q + … + r = n
p! q!…r !
Example: How many different permutations are there in the word COMMITTEE if all letters are to be taken?
P= = 45360
9!
2! 2 ! 2 !
6. Combination
Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. In other words, the order of arranging the
objects is not important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the number of distinct combinations is
given by the formula:
 Cr= , where n ≥ r
n!
n
r ! ( n−r ) !
Example: In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen from 6 persons?
Answer:
C4 = = 15 ways
6!
6
4 ! ( 6−4 ) !
PROBABILITY
Probability: the likelihood of the occurrence of an event.
If E is an event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0 and 1, inclusive. In
symbol,
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen.
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Moreover, the probability that E will not happen is P(E), then P(E) + P(E) = 1
1. Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is defined as

n(E)
P (E) = where n(E) = number of favorable outcomes
n(S)
n(S) = number of opposite outcomes
2. Experimental Probability
The probability of an event may also be obtained experimentally. Suppose we want to find out the probability of
obtaining a tail in a toss of coin. We can perform an experiment by tossing the coin 50 times and record the
number of occurrences of tail. Suppose that tail occurred 24 times, then the probability of getting a tail based on
this experiment is:
P(tail) = 24/50
STATISTICS
Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities of data and help investigators draw sound
conclusions. Its two main branches are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
A sample is a specified set of measurements or data called the population.
Kinds of Sampling
1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance
of being included in the sample. A random sample is said to be representative of the entire population. The
two methods of random sampling are lottery method and the use of the table of random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth element of the population for the sample, with
the starting point determined at random from the first n elements.
3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting simple random samples from mutually exclusive
groupings or strata of the population.

Graphical Representations of Data

Histogram – a graphical picture of a frequency distribution consisting of a series of vertical columns or rectangles,
each drawn with a base equal to the class interval and a height corresponding to the class frequency. The bars of a
histogram are joined together, that is, there are no spaces between bars.
Bar Chart – uses rectangles or bars to represent discrete classes of data. The length of each bar corresponds to the
frequency or percentage of the given class or category. The categories are in turn placed in either horizontal or
vertical.
Frequency Polygon – a special type of line graph, where each class frequency is plotted directly above the midpoint
or class mark of its class interval and lines are drawn to connect the points.
 Pie Chart – an effective way of presenting categorized (qualitative) distributions, where a circle is divided into
sectors – pie-shaped pieces – which are proportional in size to the corresponding frequencies or percentages.
Pictogram – known as picture graph where picture symbols are used to represent values.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
A measure of central tendency is a single, central value that summarizes a set of numerical data. The measures of
central tendency are the mean, median and mode.

MEASURES OF VARIABILTY
A measure of variation or variability describes how large the differences between the individuals are on a trait. The
common measures of variability are range and standard deviation.

Measures of Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

Central Tendency
Mean The sum of the data divided by the Σx A single, unique value that is Not appropriate for skewed
number of data. Ungrouped data: x= representative of all the scores. distribution as it is affected by
n Stable from group to group. extreme scores or outliers.
Σ xf May be used in further
Grouped data: x=
n computations
Median The middle number of the Ungrouped data: the middle More stable from group to group than Not necessarily representative of all

( )
set when the data are arranged in N +1 the mode scores
numerical order for the th score Unstable from group to group
2 Cannot be used in further
n analyses.
−cf
grouped data: 2
L+( )i
f
Mode The number that occurs Ungrouped data: Easy to obtain Not necessarily
most frequently in the data. The most frequent score representative of all scores.
Group data: Cannot be used in further
The class mark of the class analyses.
interval with the highest
frequency.

Measures of Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

Variation
Range The difference between Ungrouped
the data: R = HS – LS Easy to compute Unstable
highest score and the lowestGrouped data: Hives a unique value Not representative
score R =Upper Limit of the Easy to understand of the set of data
Highest Class Interval Not used in further
-Lower Limit of the Lowest computations
Class Interval
Standard Deviation The square root of the
variance of the set of data
√
Ungrouped data: S= Σ ¿ ¿ ¿ Most stable
Gives a unique value
Affected by extreme
scores
√
Grouped data: S= Σ f ¿ ¿ ¿
Most representative More difficult to
Used in further computations compute and understand.
PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Directions: Choose the best answer from the choices given. Write the corresponding letter of your choice.
1. Which of the following statements is true?
a. The endpoint of ⃗ SR is R. c. A line has length and width
b. Opposite rays are collinear d. The length of a ray can be measured
2. Which of these triangles CANNOT be a right triangle?
a. Obtuse b. scalene c. isosceles d. equilateral
3. In triangle BED, with right triangle at B, what is the hypotenuse?
a. ⃗ BE b. ⃗ED c. ⃗
BD d. cannot be determined
4. Refer to the figure. Given: m∠ 2=62° and m∠ 3=92. Find m∠ 4 .

3 a. 36° c. 134°
4 1 2 5 b. 105° d. 154°

5. ARGO is a parallelogram. If m∠ A=77 °, them m∠ G = ______.

a. 77° b. 103° c. 113° d. 123°
6. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
I. A square is a rectangle II. A parallelogram is a rhombus
II. A square is a rhombus II. A rectangle is a parallelogram
a. I and II only c. I, II, IV only
b. I and IV only d. I, II, III and IV

For item 7, refer to this figure:

1 4 5 8
2 3 6 7
r s

7. If lines r and s are parallel, which of the following pairs of angles are congruent?
a. ∠ 3and∠ 6 b. ∠ 5 and ∠ 6 c.∠ 2and∠ 7 d.∠ 4 and ∠ 6
8. Find the measure of angle 1 in the figure

3x + 20

4x 25

a. 25° b. 45° c. 126° d. 155°

9. The complement of the angle is three times the angle. What is the measure of the angle?
a. 22.5° b. 45° c. 67.5° d. 135°
10. What is the measure of each interior angle of a regular heptagon?
a. 128.6° b. 140.5° c. 720° d. 900°
11. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1: 3: 5. What is the largest angle?
a. 20° b. 60° c. 80° d. 100°
12. Which of these figures cannot be the sides of a triangle?
a. 1, 3, 3 b. 1, 1, 1, c. 6, 12, 8 d. 5, 10, 4
13. The area of a square is 144 cm2. What is its perimeter?
a. 12 cm b. 15 cm c. 48 cm d. 72 cm
14. What is the area of the largest circle that can be cut out of a square paper whose side is 40 cm?
 a. 62.8 cm2 b. 84 cm2 c. 524 cm2 d. 1, 256 cm2
15. The graph shows the number of socks, belts, handkerchiefs, and neckties sold by a store in one week.

160
140
120
100
Number of

80
60
Items

40
20
0
Items Sold by the
Store

The names of the items are missing from the graph. Socks were the item most often sold, and fewer
neckties than any other item were sold. More belts than handkerchiefs were sold. How many belts were sold?
a. 80 b. 90 c. 120 d. 140
16. A card is picked at random from an ordinary deck of cards. Find the probability of picking a black ace.
a. ½ b. ¼ c. 1/13 d. 1/26
17. A card is picked at random from an ordinary deck of cards. Find the probability of picking a card that is not a
heart.
a. 1/13 b. ¼ c. ½ d. ¾
18. Each of the six faces of a certain cube is painted either green or blue. When the cube is tossed, the
probability of the cube landing with the blue up is 2/3. How many faces are green?
a. One b. Two c. Three d. Four
19. A card is selected at random from 50 cards numbered from 1 to 50. What is the probability that the number
on the card is a prime number?
a. 3/10 b. 2/5 c. 8/25 d. 7/25
20. A pair of dice is thrown. What is the probability of throwing a double number? (e.g. 3, 3)?
a. 1/3 b. 1/16 c. 1/12 d. 1/36
21. In how many ways can two swimmers be chosen from a group of six swimmers?
a. 72 b. 504 c. 720 d. 91
22. In how many ways can 6 people be seated around a circular table?
a. 720 b. 600 c. 540 d. 120
23. How many combinations can be made from the letters A, B, C, D if the letters are taken 2 at a time?
a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6
24. In how many ways can two swimmers be chosen from a group of six swimmers?
a. 15 b. 30 c. 45 d. 90
25. A coffee shop offers 5 flavors of coffee: mocha, cappuccino, espresso, vanilla, and latte. Coffee may be
served hot or cold and it comes in tall, regular and short sizes. In how many ways can the costumer order
his/ her coffee?
a. 3 ways b. 10 ways c. 24 ways d. 30 ways
26. Find the number of distinct permutations of the letters in the word ‘CLASS’.
a. 60 b. 120 c. 180 d. 360
27. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1-8, if the digits can be repeated?
 a. 336 b. 436 c. 512 d. 524
28. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if the 3-digit numbers from odd numbers and
the digits are repeated?
a. 75 b. 100 c. 112 d. 125
29. How many sets of answers are possible for a 6-item true or false test?
a. 12 b. 36 c. 64 d. 128
30. Mario had three test scores of 78, 76, and 74, while Kristyn had scores of 72, 82, and 74. How did Mario’s
average (mean) score compared with Kristyn’s average score?
a. Mario was 1 point higher c. Mario was 2 points lower
b. Mario was 2 point lower d. Both averages were the same

For items 31-33:

Mr. Marquez gave a Mathematics test to a group of students. The distribution of the scores is the following:

Scores Frequency
21-25 2
16-20 5
11-15 12
6-10 4
1-5 1

31. How many pupils took the test?

a. 25 b. 24 c. 22 d. 12
32. What is the size of the interval of the frequency distribution?
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5
33. What is the computed mean value?
a. 13.6 b. 14.1 c. 12 d. 15.4

CLASSES MEAN STANDARAD DEVIATION

I – Magalang 24.7 2.16
I – Masunurin 26.4 2.53
I – Masipag 25.7 2.87
I – Matipid 26.4 2.72

34. Which of the following classes performed best and with the least variability in the test?
a. I – Magalang b. I – Masunurin c. I – Masipag d. I – Matipid
35. The table shows the students’ grades and the corresponding number of units for each subject. What is the
mean (average) of the grades?
a. 88.9 b. 89 c. 90 d. 90.7

SUBJECTS UNITS (Weight) GRADE

Filipino 3 88
English 3 90
Math 3 94
Science 5 91
AralingPanlipunan 3 87
Computer 2 96
PE 1 90
PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
Directions: Choose the best answer from the choices given. Write the corresponding letter of your choice.

1. An angle is 55.5°. What is the measure of its supplement?

a. 24.5° b. 34.5° c. 114.5° d. 124.5°
2. Given: RS = 5, RT = 16, and ST = 11. Which of these points is between the other two?
a. R b. S c. T d. any point
3. What is the altitude of this figure?
A B C

D E F
a. (AD) b. (BE)
4.