Data Collection and Analysis

Md. Shahrear Talukder

Associate Professor
Department of English
Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology
 Analyzing Data

• The approach adopted for managing and analyzing data

from an empirical study is of course related to the aims
of the study.
• One influence on the kind of analysis used will be what
the findings are intended to do, whether it is to
contribute to sociological theory, evaluate a health
promotion intervention or inform the development of a
survey questionnaire.
• These broad aims will influence the style of analysis: whether it
attempts to merely report the views of the respondents, or a
more detailed analysis that aims to explain how the accounts
produced in the research illuminate a particular research
question.
• At a general level, analysis might aim for some of the following
outcomes:
• Developing conceptual definitions
• Developing typologies and classifications
• Exploring associations between attitudes, behaviors and
experiences
• Developing explanations of phenomena
• Generating new ideas and theories
 Why Data Analysis?
• Data analysis stage incorporates several elements and the raw data
has to be managed to establish whether there are any obvious
flaws, such as failure to answer accurately (Bryman, 2012).

• Analysing data is an elaborate process of reducing raw data into

concepts by transcribing, thematic analysis, coding data, writing
memos, diagramming and the process of application of statistical
techniques by computer in order to see what they can say about the
research questions and hypothesis (Neuman, 1997; Punch, 2005;
Bryman, 2012).
 Why data analysis?
• Qualitative data analysis since it helped to condense
voluminous qualitative data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Moreover some of the qualitative data is presented in
descriptive mode as quotations in this study. Based on
the written transcripts from audio recordings, seven
broad categories in light of the research questions
and subcategories were generate.
 Why data analysis?
• However by axial coding techniques this study focuses on
socio-cultural, economic, geographical and institutional
vulnerability, vulnerability of female-headed households,
access and entitlement to resources and vulnerability,
women’s involvement and participation with decision-
making processes and committees and vulnerability,
changes in local practices, and adaptive capacity and
coping mechanisms from different dimensions considering
context conditions, intervening conditions, structural
conditions or causal conditions (Strauss & Corbin, 1990,
1998).
 Strategies of Analyzing Qualitative Data
Moreover, unlike quantitative data analysis, clear-cut rules about
how qualitative data analysis should be carried out have not been
developed.

• Analytic Induction
• Grounded Theory
• Coding
• Narrative Analysis
Strategies of Analyzing Qualitative Data
• analytic induction as a general strategy of qualitative data analysis;
• grounded theory as a general strategy of qualitative data analysis; this is
probably the most prominent of the general approaches to qualitative data
analysis; the chapter examines its main features, processes, and outcomes,
along with some of the criticisms that are sometimes levelled at the
approach;
• coding as a key process in grounded theory and in approaches to
qualitative data analysis more generally; it is the focus of an extended
discussion in terms of what it entails and some of the limitations of a
reliance on coding;
• the idea of narrative analysis is introduced as an approach to data analysis
that is gaining a growing following and that does not result in data
fragmentation;
 Strategies of Analyzing Qualitative Data
• Qualitative data analysis is not straightforward as qualitative data
deriving from interviews or participant observation typically take the
form of a large corpus of unstructured textual material.
• Unlike quantitative data analysis, clear-cut rules about how qualitative
data analysis should be carried out have not been developed.
• There are two strategies of analysis—analytic induction and grounded
theory. They are probably the most frequently cited approaches, though
others do exist (e.g., R. Williams 1976; Hycner 1985).
• By a general strategy of qualitative data analysis, we mean a
framework that is meant to guide the analysis of data.
• One of the ways in which qualitative and quantitative data analysis
sometimes differ is that, with the Quan data, analysis invariably
occurs after your data have been collected. However, general
approaches like grounded theory (and analytic induction) are often
described as iterative—that is, there is a repetitive interplay
between the collection and analysis of data.
• This means that analysis starts after some of the data have been
collected, and the implications of that analysis then shape the next
steps in the data-collection process.
• Consequently, while grounded theory and analytic induction are
described as strategies of analysis, they can also be viewed as
strategies for the collection of data.
 Analyzing Qualitative Data
• Analytic induction begins with a rough definition of a research
question, proceeds to a hypothetical explanation of that
problem, and then continues on to the collection of data
(examination of cases).
• Analytic induction is a research logic used to guide data
collection, develop analysis, and organize the presentation of
research findings.
• If a case that is inconsistent with the hypothesis is
encountered, the analyst either redefines the hypothesis so as
to exclude the deviant or negative case or reformulates the
hypothesis and proceeds with further data collection.
 Analyzing Qualitative Data
• If the latter path is chosen, if a further deviant case is
found, the analyst must choose again between
reformulation or redefinition.
• Analytic induction is an extremely rigorous method of
analysis, because encountering a single case that is
inconsistent with a hypothesis is sufficient to necessitate
further data collection or a reformulation of the
hypothesis.
 Grounded Theory
• Grounded theory has been
defined as ‘theory that was
derived from data, systematically
gathered and analyzed through
the research process. In this
method, data collection, analysis,
and eventual theory stand in
close relationship to one another’
(Strauss and Corbin 1998: 12).
• Thus, two central features of
grounded theory are that it is
concerned with the development
of theory out of data and that the
approach is iterative, or recursive,
as it is sometimes called, meaning
that data collection and analysis
proceed in tandem, repeatedly
referring back to each other.
In general
To analyse the qualitative data of this study ...........
narrowed down the core themes of the study in light of the
research questions by using axial coding, the process of
relating categories to the subcategories to form more
precise and complete explanation about phenomena from
different level of properties and dimensions (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998). Strauss & Corbin (1990; 1998) propose that
coding and categorising data are related to (1) cause and
effect conditions, (2) the phenomenon of study, (3) the
context conditions, (4) the intervening conditions, (5)
actions/interactions strategies, and (6) consequences.
 Coding
• Coding means highlighting sections of our text – usually phrases or sentences – and
coming up with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.
• A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically
assigns a summative, salient, essence capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a
portion of language-based or visual data’
Personally, I’m not sure. I think the climate ∙ Uncertainty
is changing, sure, but I don’t know why or ∙ Acknowledgement of climate change
how. People say you should trust the ∙ Distrust of experts
experts, but who’s to say they don’t have ∙ Changing terminology
their own reasons for pushing this
narrative? I’m not saying they’re wrong, I’m
just saying there’s reasons not to 100% trust
them. The facts keep changing – it used to
be called global warming.
Steps and Considerations in Coding
• Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go
along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your
understanding of your data and help with theoretical
sampling. Also, it may help to alleviate the feeling of being
swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer
analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At
the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection
involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a
relatively early stage.
Steps and Considerations in Coding
• Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc.,
without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at
the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as
especially interesting, important, or significant.
• Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make
marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as
many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic—perhaps key words
used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data.
When you do this, you are coding—generating an index of terms that
will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.
Steps and Considerations in Coding

• Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in

relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words
or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove
one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and
categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible
to use these instead? Can you see any connections between
the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe
that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by
something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore
code these connections?
Steps and Considerations in Coding

• Consider more general theoretical ideas in relation to codes

and data. At this point, you should be beginning to generate
some general theoretical ideas about your data. Try to outline
connections between concepts and categories you are
developing. Consider in more detail how they relate to the
existing literature. Develop hypotheses about the linkages you
are making and go back to your data to see if they can be
confirmed.
Steps and Considerations in Coding

• Remember that any one item or slice of data can and

often should be coded in more than one way.
• Do not worry about generating what seem to be too
many codes—at least in the early stages of your
analysis; some will be fruitful, and others will not—the
important thing is to be as inventive and imaginative as
possible; you can worry about tidying things up later.
Steps and Considerations in Coding

• Keep coding in perspective. Do not equate coding with analysis. It is

part of your analysis, albeit an important one. It is a mechanism for
thinking about the meaning of your data and for reducing the vast
amount of data that you are facing (Huberman and Miles 1994). You
must still interpret your findings, which means attending to issues like
the significance of your coded material for the lives of the people you
are studying, forging interconnections between codes, and reflecting
on the overall importance of your findings for the research questions
and the research literature that have driven your data collection.
Types of Coding
• There are many different types of codes that are commonly
used in qualitative data analysis.
• One may decide to use a set of already existing codes with your
data. These are called a priori codes. A priori codes are codes
that are developed before examining the current data.
• Many qualitative researchers like to develop the codes as they
code the data. These codes are called inductive codes.
Inductive codes are codes that are developed by the researcher
by directly examining the data.
• Charmaz (2006) distinguished between two main forms or
phases of coding: initial coding and selective or focused coding.
Types of Coding

• Initial coding tends to be very detailed and may even result in a code per
line of text, whereby a code is assigned to every line of text to provide
initial impressions of the data. It is crucial at this stage to be open-
minded and to generate as many new ideas and hence codes as
necessary to encapsulate the data. It is the qualitative researcher’s first
steps towards making sense of his or her data. Charmaz suggests that it
is important in initial coding to recognize that, although codes will reflect
the perspectives of research participants, when the qualitative
researcher makes sense of the codes, he or she may end up viewing
their social world somewhat differently from them.
Types of Coding

• Focused coding entails emphasizing the most common codes

and those that are seen as most revealing about the data. This
means that some, if not many, initial codes will be dropped. As
she puts it: ‘Focused coding requires decisions about which
initial codes make the most analytic sense to categorize your
data incisively and completely’ (Charmaz 2006: 57–8).
 Turning Codes into Themes
Codes Theme

∙ Uncertainty Uncertainty
∙ Leave it to the experts
∙ Alternative explanations

∙ Changing terminology Distrust of experts

∙ Distrust of scientists
∙ Resentment toward experts
∙ Fear of government control

∙ Incorrect facts Misinformation

∙ Misunderstanding of science
∙ Biased media sources
Coding
Coding
Memos and Memo-ing

• A memo is the theorizing write-up of ideas about codes and their

relationships as they strike the analyst while coding... it can be a
sentence, a paragraph or a few pages... it exhausts the analyst’s
momentary ideation based on data with perhaps a little conceptual
elaboration (Glaser, 1978: 83).
• Memos are notes that researchers might write for themselves and for
those with whom they work concerning such elements of coding or
concepts. They serve as reminders about what is meant by the terms
being used and provide the building blocks for a certain amount of
reflection. Memos are potentially very helpful to researchers in helping
them to crystallize ideas and not to lose track of their thinking on various
topics
Links
• Link to Get Idea about How to Use
ENVivo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nzF48qLy2kg

• Another One: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fI-kSSHjWxM

• Another Link for ENVivo:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mS4lWyHuWg