Minimum Level of Learning Class XII Informatics Practices

“SESSION 2025-26
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
Zonal Institute of Education & Training, Gwalior
OUR MENTOR:
MR. B.L. MORODIA
Deputy Commissioner & Director
KVS Zonal Institute of Education and Training, Gwalior
Course Coordinator
MRS. ANITA KANAJIA, T.A. ECONOMICS
RESOURCE PERSONS
1. MRS SANGEETA M CHAUHAN ,
PGT CS , PM SHRI K V NO3 GWALIOR
2. MR. ALOK GUPTA
PGT COMP, PM SHRI K V ETAWAH
VETTED BY:
1. MR RAJU DIXIT ,
PGT CS, PM SHRI K V ALIGARH
2. MR. RAKESH KUMAR SINGH YADAV
PGT CS, PM SHRI K V DOGRA LINES MEERUT CANTT
3. MR. SUNIL KUMAR BHELE
PGT CS, PM SHRI K V PUNJAB LINES MEERUT CANTT
4. MR. MANISH GUPTA
PGT CS, PM SHRI K V HATHRAS
5. MR PANKAJ SINGH
PGT(CS) , PM SHRI KV TALBEHAT
SERIES

Pandas provides the Series data structure, which is a one-dimensional labeled array capable of holding
data of any type (integers, strings, floats, etc.). A Series can be created from various data sources, including
ndarrays, dictionaries, and scalar values.
1. Creating Series from ndarray An ndarray (NumPy array) can be used to create a Series. If no index is
provided, the default index will be [0, 1, 2, ..., n-1].
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np Output-
arr = np.array([10, 20, 30, 40]) 0 10
s = pd.Series(arr) 1 20
print(s) 2 30
3
40dtype: int64
2. Creating Series from Dictionary
A dictionary can be directly converted into a Series where the keys become the index labels, and the
values become the data.

import pandas as pd Output-

A 45
d = {'A': 45, 'B': 67, 'C': 34, 'D': 78} B 67
s = pd.Series(d) C 34
print(s) D 78
dtype: int64
3. Creating Series from Scalar Value
A scalar value (constant) can be used to create a Series where the value is repeated for all specified
indexes.

import pandas as pd Output-

s1 = pd.Series(8) 08
# Creates a Series with one default index (0) dtype: int64
print(s1) a5
s2 = pd.Series(5, index=['a', 'b', 'c']) b5
# Repeats 5 for each index c5
print(s2) dtype: int64

Arithmetic Operations in Pandas Series Students will be able to perform and understand basic arithmetic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) on Pandas Series.
1. Series Addition (+)
Description: Adds values in two Series element-wise (position-wise). If index labels match, values are
added; if not, result is NaN.
Code Example:
Output-
import pandas as pd
0 11
s1 = pd.Series([10, 20, 30])
1 22
s2 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])
2 33
print(s1 + s2)
dtype:
2. Series Subtraction (-) int64
Description: Subtracts the values of one Series from another element-wise.
Code Example:
print(s1 - s2)
Output-
0 9
1 18
2 27
dtype: int64
3. Series Multiplication (*)
Description: Multiplies values of two Series element-wise.
Code Example:
print(s1 * s2)
Output-
0 10
1 40
2 90
dtype: int64

4. Series Division (/)

Description: Divides values of one Series by another element-wise. The result will be in float format.
Code Example:
print(s1 / s2)
Output-
0 10.0
1 10.0
2 10.0
dtype: float64

5. Handling Mismatched Indexes

Description: If the Series have different or non-matching indexes, Pandas aligns by index labels. Non-
overlapping labels result in NaN.
Code Example:
s3 = pd.Series([100, 200], index=['a', 'b'])
s4 = pd.Series([10, 20], index=['b', 'c'])
print(s3 + s4)
Output-
a NaN
b 210.0
c NaN
dtype: float64

Key Takeaways:
- Operations are vectorized (fast and automatic).
- Results are aligned by index, not just position.
- Missing values are shown as NaN (Not a Number).
- Use .fillna() to handle NaNs if needed.
Head() and Tail() functions in Series
head() tail()
Returns elements from beginning of Returns elements from end of series
series
head(n) Returns the first n elements of a tail(n) returns the last n elements of a Series.
Series.
if no argument is given, then both functions return 5 elements i.e. head() will give 5
elements from beginning and tail will give 5 elements from end of series
head(3) tail(3)
↓↓↓ ↑↑↑
Index: [0] [1] [2] Data: ... (omitted) | 80 | 90 | 100 |
Data: | 10 | 20 | 30 | ... (rest omitted) Index: [7] [8] [9]
Selection, Indexing and Slicing in Series
Positional Indexing (Integer-based) Label-based Indexing (Custom Index)
● Starts from 0. ● Uses custom-defined labels (if
● Syntax: seriesname[pos] provided).
● Syntax: seriesname['label']
print(s[0]) # First element → 10 s = pd.Series([10, 20, 30], index=['a', 'b', 'c'])
print(s[3]) # Fourth element → 40 print(s['b']) # Output: 20
Slicing
Positional Slicing: using loc Label-based Slicing: using iloc
s[start:stop:step] (exclusive of stop) s['start':'stop'] (inclusive of stop)

# Positional Slicing (exclusive) # Label-based Slicing (inclusive)

print(s[1:3]) print(s['a':'c']) # Elements from 'a' to 'c' →
# Elements at positions 1 and 2 → 20, 30 10, 20, 30

print(s.loc['b']) # Output: 20 print(s.iloc[1])

print(s.loc['a':'b']) # Output: 20 (position 1 = 'b')
# a 10 print(s.iloc[-1]) # Output: 40 (last element)
#b 20
print(s.loc[s > 20]) print(s.iloc[1:3])
# Output: # Output:
#c 30 #b 20
#d 40 #c 30
print(s.loc[['a', 'd']]) print(s.iloc[[0, 3]])
# Output: # Output:
#a 10 #a 10
#d 40 #d 40
Conditional Selection print(s[s > 20]) # Returns elements > 20
● Filters data based on a condition.
● Syntax: seriesname[condition]

DATA FRAME DataFrame is two-dimensional size-mutable, potentially heterogeneous tabular data structure
with labeled axes (rows and columns). A Data frame is a two-dimensional data structure, i.e., data is aligned
in a tabular fashion in rows and columns. Pandas DataFrame consists of three principal components,
the data, rows, and columns.
Creation of DataFrame :
There are following ways to create a DataFrame :
Creation of an empty DataFrame:
An empty DataFrame can be created as follows:
Coding:
import pandas as df
data=df.DataFrame()
print(data)
Creation of DataFrame from List of Dictionaries:
We can create DataFrame from a list of Dictionaries, for example:
Coding:
import pandas as pd
d1={'Name':'Ramesh','Age':20,'Marks':75}
d2={'Name':'Dinesh','Age':22,'Marks':88}
d3={'Name':'Suresh','Age':18,'Marks':90}
df1=pd.DataFrame([d1,d2,d3])
print(df1)
 Notes:
The dictionary keys are taken as column labels
▪ The values corresponding to each key are taken as data
▪ No of dictionaries= No of rows, As No of dictionaries=3, No of rows=3
▪ No of columns= Total Number of unique keys of all the dictionaries of the list, as all dictionaries
have same 3 keys, no of columns=3

Coding:
import pandas as pd
d1={'Name':'Ramesh','Age':20,'Marks':75, ‘Gender’:’Male’}
d2={'Name':'Dinesh','Age':22,'Marks':88}
d3={'Name':'Suresh','Age':18,'Marks':90,’Grade’:’B’}
df1=pd.DataFrame([d1,d2,d3])
print(df1)

The dictionary keys are taken as column labels

▪ The values corresponding to each key are taken as data
▪ No of dictionaries= No of rows, As No of dictionaries=3, No of rows=3
▪ No of columns= Total Number of distinct keys of all the dictionaries of the list, as total keys is 5, no
of columns=5
▪ NaN (Not a Number) is inserted if a corresponding value for a column is missing (As dictionary d1
has no Grade it has Grade as NaN, dictionary d2 has no Gender , hence it has Gender as NaN and d3
has has no Gender and Grade , hence it has both values as NaN)

Creation of DataFrame from Dictionary of Lists:

DataFrames can also be created from a dictionary of lists.

Coding:
import pandas as DF
name=['ramya','ravi','abhinav','priya','akash']
age=[16,17,18,17,16]
gender=['f','m','m','f','m']
marks=[88,34,67,73,45]
d1={'name':name,'age':age,'gender':gender,'marks' :marks}
df1=DF.DataFrame(d1)
print(df1)

Note:
Dictionary keys become column labels by default in a Data Frame, and the lists become the rows
Creation of DataFrame from Series:
DataFrame created from One Series:

Coding:
import pandas as pd
s1=pd.Series([300,400,500,600])
df1=pd.DataFrame(s1)
print(df1)

Note:
DataFrame from One Series: No of rows = No of elements in Series=4 (As s1 has 4 elements) No of
columns = one (As single series used)
Creation of DataFrame from Dictionary of Series:
Coding:
import pandas as pd
name=pd.Series(['ramya','ravi','abhinav','priya','akash'])
age=pd.Series([16,17,18,17,16])
gender=pd.Series(['f','m','m','f','m'])
marks=pd.Series([88,34,67,73,45]) d1={'name':name,'age':age,'gender':gender,'marks':marks}
df1=pd.DataFrame(d1)
print(df1)
DataFrame Display
- Understand how to create a DataFrame using pd.DataFrame().
- Use print(df) or simply df in interactive environments to display the DataFrame.
- Know the functions:
● • df.head() – display the first few rows.
● • df.tail() – display the last few rows.
● • df.info() – summary of columns and data types.
● • df.describe() – basic statistics for numerical columns.
DataFrame Iteration
Learn how to loop through DataFrame rows:
• for index, row in df.iterrows(): – iterate row-wise.
• for row in df.itertuples(): – more memory-efficient row-wise iteration.
- Understand the use case: read row values, apply conditions, etc.

DataFrame Operations on Rows and Columns

Add
- Add Column:
df['NewColumn'] = [val1, val2, ...]
- Add Row:
new_row = {'col1': val1, 'col2': val2}
df = pd.concat([df, pd.DataFrame([new_row])], ignore_index=True)
Select
- Select Columns:
df['ColumnName'] # single column
df[['Col1', 'Col2']] # multiple columns
- Select Rows:
df[df['Age'] > 25] # condition-based selection
df.loc[1] # select row by index
Delete
- Delete Column:
df.drop('ColumnName', axis=1, inplace=True)
- Delete Row:
df.drop(index, inplace=True) # e.g., df.drop(0, inplace=True)
Rename
- Rename Columns:
df.rename(columns={'OldName': 'NewName'}, inplace=True)
Head and Tail functions; Indexing using Labels, Boolean Indexing; slicing
Topic Definition Examples Question Solution
Head Function in Displays the first n rows of a df.head(3) displays What does It shows the first
DataFrame DataFrame (default is 5 rows). the first 3 rows. df.head() do? 5 rows by default.
Tail Function in Displays the last n rows of a df.tail(2) displays What does df.tail(3) Displays the last
DataFrame DataFrame (default is 5 rows). the last 2 rows. output? 3 rows of the
DataFrame.
Indexing Using Accessing rows/columns df.loc['A'] selects Which function is .loc[].
Labels in based on their labels using the row labeled A. used for label-based
DataFrame .loc[]. indexing?
Label-based Row Selects a row using its label. df.loc['B'] selects What does Returns the row
Selection the row labeled B. df.loc['B'] return? labeled B.

Label-based Selects a column using its df.loc[:, 'Name'] How can you select Use .loc[:,
Column Selection label. selects all rows for a specific column? 'Column_Name'].
the column Name.
Boolean Indexing Filters rows based on df[df['Salary'] > Define Boolean Filtering rows
in DataFrame conditions applied to columns. 50000] selects rows indexing in based on
where salary is DataFrame. conditions.
greater than 50000.

Boolean Indexing Filters data using expressions. df[df['Age'] > 30] What does Filters rows
Example filters rows where df[df['Age'] > 30] where the age is
the age is above 30. do? greater than 30.

Slicing Rows in Extracts specific rows using df[2:5] selects rows Write the syntax for df[start:end].
DataFrame row index ranges. with indices 2, 3, slicing rows in
and 4. DataFrame.

Slicing Columns Extracts specific columns df.iloc[:, 0:2] selects How can slicing By selecting only
in DataFrame using .iloc[] or .loc[]. the first two simplify data relevant rows or
columns. analysis? columns.

Combined Row Simultaneous slicing of rows df.loc['A':'C', What does Selects rows A to
and Column and columns. 'Age':'Salary'] df.loc['A':'C', C and columns
Slicing selects rows A to C 'Age':'Salary'] do? Age to Salary.
and columns Age to
Salary.
DATA VISUALIZATION
Purpose of Plotting
Data visualization helps in understanding trends and patterns by representing data graphically. A line plot is
used to display changes in data over time or continuous variables.

Line Plot

Matplotlib is a popular Python library for creating graphs.

Here's an example of drawing a simple line plot:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Data points
x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
y = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

# Creating a line plot

plt.plot(x, y, marker='o', linestyle='-', color='b')

# Adding labels and title

plt.xlabel('X-axis Label')
plt.ylabel('Y-axis Label')
plt.title('Simple Line Plot')

# Displaying the plot

plt.show()
#Saving the Plot
To save the generated plot as an image file:
plt.savefig('line_plot.png') # Saves the plot as a PNG file
This helps in storing the visualization for future reference or reports.

Bar Plot

What is a Bar Plot?

A bar plot is a graph that represents categorical data with rectangular bars. Each bar's length is
proportional to the value it represents.
Why Use a Bar Plot?
- To compare different categories or groups.
- To visualize data clearly and quickly.
- Useful for understanding trends and patterns.
Python Library Used
The library used to create bar plots in Python is:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
Types of Bar Plots
- Vertical Bar Plot: Uses plt.bar() -
Horizontal Bar Plot: Uses plt.barh()
Basic Syntax
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
categories = ['A', 'B', 'C']
values = [10, 20, 15]
plt.bar(categories, values)
plt.show()

Customizing a Bar Plot

 - plt.title('Title') → adds a title
- plt.xlabel('X-axis') → labels x-axis
- plt.ylabel('Y-axis') → labels y-axis
- color='red' → changes bar color
- width=0.5 → changes bar width
Common Functions
- plt.bar() : Draws vertical bars
- plt.barh() : Draws horizontal bars
- plt.xlabel() : Sets x-axis label
- plt.ylabel() : Sets y-axis label
- plt.title() : Sets chart title
- plt.xticks() : Sets labels on x-axis
- plt.savefig() : Saves plot as an image
- plt.show(): Displays the plot

Histogram

Topics Definition Example

Histogram Visualization the number of data import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
points(Frequency) that lie within range of
values. # Sample data
hist() function is used to draw the data = [12, 15, 13, 17, 19, 21, 22, 22, 23, 25,
histogram 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40]
grid() function Configures gridlines in the plot.
# Plotting the histogram
plt.hist(data, bins=8, color='skyblue',
legend() Display legend of the axis for edgecolor='black')
identification.

savefig() Save the plot as image/pdf file type # Adding titles and labels
plt.title('Sample Histogram')
title() Display the title of the plot/graph plt.xlabel('Value')
plt.ylabel('Frequency')
xlabel() Sets the label of x-axis
# Display the plot
ylabel() Sets the label of y-axis plt.show()
xticks() Sets the tick location and label on x-axis

yticks() Sets the tick location and label on y-axis

 Importing/Exporting Data between CSV files and Dataframes
1.1 Importing data from csv file /Read CSV File to Dataframe/Creating dataframe from csv file
Using the read_csv() function from the pandas package, you can import tabular data from CSV files into
pandas dataframe.
CASE 1. If separator character in csv file is comma
Syntax:
pandas.read_csv(<filepath>)
Eg. Write python code to read a csv file “test.csv” from D:\
Let us assume csv file named test

>>>import pandas as pd
>>>df = pd.read_csv(‘d:\\test.csv’) #read the csv file
>>>df
Output:
0 Snumber B P
1 1 Honda Civic 22000
2 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
3 3 FordFocus 27000
4 4 AudiA4 35000
CASE 2. If separator character is different from comma in csv file
Syntax:
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,sep=<separator character>)
Eg.
Let us assume csv file named test3

>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test3.csv’,sep=’;’)
>>>df
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 FordFocus 27000
3 4 AudiA4 35000

1.2 Reading CSV File and specifying own column names

Syntax:
(i) If csv file contains column headings
CASE 1. If we want to change existing column headings
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,names=<sequence containing column names>,skiprows=<n>)
In this case, we need to give two arguments along with file path-one for column headings i.e.
names=<sequence containing column names> and another for skipping n number of rows while reading
data.
Eg. Let us assumn csv file named test.
>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test.csv’,names=[‘Sno’,’Brand’,’Price’],skiprows=1)
>>>df
Sno Brand Price
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 FordFocus 27000
3 4 AudiA4 35000
CASE 2. If we want to give default headings like 0,1,2,3…..
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,header=None,skiprows=<n>)
In this case, we need to give two arguments along with file path-one for default column headings i.e.
header=None and another for skipping n number of rows while reading data.
Eg. Let us assumn csv file named test.

>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test.csv’,header=None,skiprows=1)
>>>df
0 1 2
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 FordFocus 27000
3 4 AudiA4 35000

(ii) If csv file not have column headings

CASE 1. If we want to give column headings
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,names=<sequence containing column names>)

Eg. Let us assume csv file names test1

>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test1.csv’,names=[‘Sno’,’Brand’,’Price’])
>>>df
Sno Brand Price
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
 1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 FordFocus 27000
3 4 AudiA4 35000
CASE 2. If we want to give default headings like 0,1,2,3…..
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,header=None)

>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test1.csv’,header=None)
>>>df
0 1 2
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 FordFocus 27000
3 4 AudiA4 35000

1.3 Reading specified number of rows from CSV File

Syntax:
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,nrows=<n>)
Use nrows=<n> argument for reading n number of rows from csv file to dataframe.
Eg.
>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test1.csv’,names=[‘Sno’,’Brand’,’Price’],nrows=2)
>>>df
Sno Brand Price
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
1.4 Assigning dataframe index labels from csv file
Syntax:
<df>=pandas.read_csv(<filepath>,index_col=<column_label>)
Use index_col=<column_label> argument for assigning labels of indexes of dataframe from one of the
column label of csv file.
Eg.
>>>import pandas
>>>df=pandas.read_csv(‘d:\\test1.csv’,names=[‘Sno’,’Brand’,’Price’],index_col=”Sno”)
>>>df
Brand Price
Sno
1 Honda Civic 22000
2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
3 FordFocus 27000
4 AudiA4 35000

2.1 Exporting data from dataframe to csv file /Creating csv file from dataframe’s data
Using the to_csv() function from the pandas package, you can export data from dataframe to CSV file.
CASE 1. If we want to use comma as a separator character in csv file
Syntax:
<DF>.to_csv(<filepath>)
Eg. Write python code to store data present in a dataframe to a csv file “export1_dataframe.csv” in D:\
>>>import pandas as pd
>>>cars = {'Brand': ['Honda Civic','ToyotaCorolla','FordFocus','AudiA4'],'Price':
[22000,25000,27000,35000]}
>>>df= pd.DataFrame(cars, columns= [‘Sno’,'Brand', 'Price'])
>>>df.to_csv(‘d:\\export1_dataframe.csv’) #write the csv file
Output:
Now open csv file named export1_dataframe in D:/ Drive

CASE 2. If we want to use other separator from comma to separate data in csv file
Syntax:
<DF>.to_csv(<filepath>,sep=<separator_character>)
Eg. Write python code to store data present in a dataframe to a csv file “export1_dataframe.csv” in D:\
>>>import pandas as pd
>>>cars = {'Brand': ['Honda Civic','ToyotaCorolla','FordFocus','AudiA4'],'Price':
[22000,25000,27000,35000]}
>>>df= pd.DataFrame(cars, columns= [‘Sno’,'Brand', 'Price'])
>>>df.to_csv(‘d:\\export1_dataframe.csv’,sep=’#’) #write csv file
Output:
Now open csv file named export1_dataframe in D:/ Drive

2.2 Skipping row labels/column names in csv file

Syntax:
<DF>.to_csv(<filepath>,header=False,index=False)
Eg. Write python code to store data present in a dataframe to a csv file “export1_dataframe.csv” in D:\
>>>import pandas as pd
>>>cars = {'Brand': ['Honda Civic','ToyotaCorolla','FordFocus','AudiA4'],'Price':
[22000,25000,27000,35000]}
>>>df= pd.DataFrame(cars, columns= [‘Sno’,'Brand', 'Price'])
>>>df.to_csv(‘d:\\ export1_dataframe.csv’,sep=’#’,header=False,index=False) #write csv
file
Output:
Now open csv file named export1_dataframe in D:/ Drive
1#Honda Civic#22000
2#ToyotaCorolla#25000
3#FordFocus#27000
4#AudiA4#35000
2.3 Handling NaN values
If dataframe has some missing values, By default, the missing null values are stored as empty strings in csv
file.
Eg.
>>>df.loc[2,’Brand’]=numpy.NaN
>>>df
Sno Brand Price
0 1 Honda Civic 22000
1 2 ToyotaCorolla 25000
2 3 NaN 27000
 3 4 AudiA4 35000
>>>df.to_csv(‘d:\\ export1_dataframe.csv’,sep=’#’,header=False,index=False)
Output:
Now open csv file named export1_dataframe in D:/ Drive
1#Honda Civic#22000
2#ToyotaCorolla#25000
3# #27000
4#AudiA4#35000
You can specify your own string for missing nan values using argument na_rep=<string>
Eg.
>>>df.to_csv(‘d:\\ export1_dataframe.csv’,sep=’#’,header=False,index=False,na_rep=”Null”)
Output:
Now open csv file named export1_dataframe in D:/ Drive
1#Honda Civic#22000
2#ToyotaCorolla#25000
3# Null #27000
4#AudiA4#35000

DATABASE & SQL

Q.NO. PARTICULARS MARKS
1. Write names of two command of DDL & DML 1
2. Write a command to add a column named remarks with data type varchar size 30 in 1
the table student.
3. Write a function to count number of records in a table employee 1
4. Find out DDL & DML Commands from the following: 1
INSERT, DELETE, ALTER, DROP
5. Write a query to display all records from the table. 1
6. What is a primary key? 1
7. Write one difference between DDL and DML. 1
8. Write a command to insert a record in the table student with rollno, name, class, 1
marks with values
(5,’AMIT’,’IX’,450)
9. Explain following functions avg ( ) and sum( ) with suitable example in sql. 1
10. Write a command to delete a record having name ‘sachin’ from the table employee. 1
11. Write a command to see the structure of the table. 1
12. Which SQL command is used to retrieve data? 1
13. Write a command used to arrange the records in descending order in SQL? 1
14. What is the function of the PRIMARY KEY? 1
15. What do you mean by Foreign key? 1
16. Which command is used to change/modify the values in a table. 1
17. Write the SQL command to display all records from a table named student 1
18. Aman wants to remove the table Product from the database SHOP which command 1
will he use from the following.
19. Write MySQL statements for the following: 2
i. To create a database named FOOD
ii. To create a table named Nutrients based on the following specification:
Column Data Type Constraints
Name
Food_Item Varchar(20) Primary Key
Calorie Integer
20. . Consider the following table stored in a database SHOP: 2
Table: Product
Pcode Pname Qty Price
100 Tooth Paste 100 78.0
101 Soap 500 20
102 Talc Powder 50 45.0

(i) What is the degree and cardinality of the above table?

(ii) Write a SQL command to add a new column supcode of char (20)
size in the table.

NETWORKING

Q1. Explain different types of computer network

Ans.

● Type ● Full Form ● Distance ● Media Used ● Devices

Used
● PAN ● Personal Area ● 30-40 ft ● Bluetooth, ●
Network ● (A Infrared, Data
Room ) Cable etc.
● LAN ● Local Area ● 0-1 Km ● Wifi, Twisted ● Switch/Hub
Network Wire Pair,
Ethernet Cable
● MAN ● Metropolitan ● 1-15Km ● Coaxial Cable, ● Repeaters
Area Microwaves
Network
● WAN ● Wide Area ● ∞ ● Radio Waves, ● Gateways,
Network Optical Fiber, Routers
Satellite
Communication

Q2. What do you mean by a hub or a switch?

Ans. Hub: Act as a Central Device in Star Topology. It is a passive device
Switch: is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching to
receive and forward data to the destination device. Also Known as Intelligent Hub.
Q3. What do you mean by a router?
Ans. Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. i.e a
router connects networks. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks
they’re connected.
Q4. What do you mean by Network Topology?
Ans. Network Topology: The physical way in which computers are connected to each other in a network is
called Network Topology.
Bus: A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes are connected to a
single cable. The cable to which the nodes connect is called a "backbone". If the backbone is broken, the entire
segment fails.
Ring: A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections create a circular data path. Each
networked device is connected to two others, like points on a circle.
Star: A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes are individually
connected to a central connection point, like a hub or a switch.
Q5. What is URL?
Ans. URL: Uniform Resource Locator : address of a given unique resource on the Web.
e.g. http://www.cbse.nic.in/index.html
Q5. What is VoIP?
Ans. VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol: is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using an
Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.
Q6. What is the difference between a webpage and a website?
Ans.
● Webpage ● Website
● Webpage is a single document on the ● Website is a collection of multiple webpages
Internet with information on a related topic
● Each webpage has a unique URL. ● Each website has a unique Domain Name

Q7. Write difference between static and dynamic webpage.

Ans. Static Web Page: A static web page (sometimes called a flat page or a stationary page) is a web page
that is delivered to the user's web browser exactly as stored. i.e. static Web pages contain the same prebuilt
content each time the page is loaded
Dynamic web page: The contents of Dynamic web page are constructed with the help of a program. They
may change each time a user visit the page. Example a webpage showing score of a Live Cricket Match.
Q8. What do you mean by a web browser? Give Example.
Ans. Web Browser: A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for
accessing information on the World Wide Web. e.g. Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, MS
Edge, Brave, and Apple Safari.
Q9. Write Full forms of the following:
Ans. ARPANET Advanced Research Project Agency Network
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
PPP Point To Point Ptotocol
VoIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
SLIP Serial Link Internet Protocol
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
POP Post Office Protocol
PAN Personal Area Network
LAN Local Area Network
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
MODEM MOdulator DEModulator
SIM Subscriber Identification Module
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
Q10. Explain different types of networks.
Ans.
TYPES OF NETWORKS – Based on geographical area and data transfer rate
PAN LAN MAN WAN
(Personal Area (Local Area Network) (Metropolitan Area (Wide Area Network)
Network ) Network)
Interconnecting few Connects devices in limited Extended form of LAN, Connects devices, LANs
personal devices area, say office, university within the city. and WANs across
like laptop, mobile campus etc. Example – CableTV different parts of country
etc. Area – upto 1 Km network in a town. or different countries or
Area – 10 meters Ethernet Cable, Fibre Optics, Area – 30-40 Km continents.
Bluetooth / USB Wi-Fi etc Example – Internet

Q11. Explain different kind of topologies.

Ans.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES - pattern of layout or inter-connection between devices ( computer nodes ,
printers etc.) in a network.

BUS topology STAR topology RING topology MESH topology

Easy to setup ; Centrally controlled ; Easy to setup ; Network can be
Less cable length ; Fault diagnosis easy; Higher rate of data expanded without
Fault diagnosis difficult; Expensive to setup; transmission; affecting existing LAN ;
Not suitable for large If central hub fails, Troubleshooting difficult Robust topology;
networks network disrupts. ; Complex setup

Q12. Explain different types of Transmission Media.

Ans.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
WIRED (Guided) WIRELESS (Unguided)
Twisted Pair Cable ( Ethernet Cable) Infrared – Are electromagnetic radiation for line-of-sight;
Economical and Easy to use Frequency 300 GHz - 400 THz; Range 10-30 meters
stp (shielded twisted pair) , Bluetooth - standard wireless (radio wave) communication
utp (un- shielded twisted pair) protocol uses 2.4 GHz frequency; max range 100 meter
Co-axial Cable Radio wave (frequency range 30 Hz – 300 GHz )
Example = cable TV wire
Optical Fiber Cable Satellite (downlink frequency 1.5 – 20 GHz)
Most reliable, fast transmission, (Uplink frequency 1.6 GHz – 30 GHz)
expensive VERY FAST, EXPENSIVE
Microwave ( frequency range 300 MHz – 300 GHz)
All unguided media = transmitter, receiver and atmosphere

Q13. Explain difference between Router and Bridge.

Ans. ROUTER: It connects multiple networks with different protocols and can handle multiple protocols
and works using IP addresses
BRIDGE: connects local networks with same standard but having different types of cables and cannot manage
multiple protocols and works using MAC addresses.

Q14. What is a repeater?

Ans. REPEATER is used to re-generate received signal and re-transmit towards destination.
 TIP - When to suggest use of Repeater?
When distance between devices is more than 90 meter
Q15. Write difference between a switch and a hub.
Ans.
SWITCH v/s HUB
An intelligent device that connects several nodes An electronic device which connects several nodes to
for form a network. form a network.
Sends information only to intended nodes Redirects the information to all the nodes in broadcast
form.

Q16. Write tips for case study based QA.

Ans.
Tips for CASE STUDY BASED questions
Question Hint for Answering
Layout Draw block diagram interconnecting blocks, prefer the block or unit
with maximum devices as main to connect other blocks
Topology Write name of topology – Star / Bus / Ring etc.
Placement of Server In the unit/block with maximum number of computers
Placement of Hub/Switch In every block / unit
Placement of Repeater As per layout diagram, if distance between two blocks is above 90
meter
Cost-effective medium for internet Broadband / connection over telephone lines
Communication media for LAN Ethernet ( upto 100 meter) / Co-axial cable for high speed within LAN
Cost/Budget NOT an issue in LAN Optical Fiber
Communication media for Hills Radio wave / Microwave
Communication media for Desert Radio wave
Very fast communication between Satellite ( avoid it in case economical / budget is mentioned)
two cities / countries
Device / software to prevent Firewall ( Hardware and/or Software )
unauthorized access

Q17. Write difference between http and https.

Ans. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol- transfer data from one device to another on the world wide web.
HTTP defines how the data is formatted and transmitted over the network.
HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure: advanced and secure version of HTTP.
Q18. What is an email?
Ans. e-Mail or email, short for "electronic mail," is the transmission of messages electronically over
computer networks.
Q19. What are cookies?
Ans. Cookies are combination of data and short codes, which help in viewing a webpage properly in an easy
and fast way. Cookies are downloaded into our system, when we first open a site using cookies and then they
are stored in our computer only. Next time when we visit the website, instead of downloading the cookies,
locally stored cookies are used. Though cookies are very helpful but they can be dangerous, if miss-utilized.
Q20. What are Protocols?
Ans. Protocols are set of rules, which governs a Network communication. Or set of rules that determine how
data is transmitted between different devices in a network.
Q21. Write some advantages of Computer Network.
Ans. Some advantages are as follows:
- We can share resources such as printer and scanner
- Can share data and access files from any machine
- Software can be installed on server and used on client machine
- Save cost

E-Waste and Its Management —

Definition of E-Waste
 • E-Waste or Electronic Waste includes discarded electronic devices like computers, mobile phones,
TVs, printers, etc., that have reached the end of their useful life.
Why E-Waste is a Problem
• E-waste is growing rapidly due to increased use of electronics.
• Lack of awareness and skills in disposal worsen the issue.
• It makes up more than 5% of municipal solid waste globally.
Impact of E-Waste on Environment
• Improper disposal causes air, water, and soil pollution.
• Toxic metals leach into soil and groundwater.
• Burning e-waste releases harmful gases into the air.
Impact of E-Waste on Humans
• Lead: Causes lead poisoning, affects brain and kidneys.
• Beryllium: From burnt circuit boards; causes skin diseases and lung cancer.
• Mercury: Affects the respiratory system and brain.
• Cadmium: Damages liver, kidneys, and bones.
• Plastics: Release chemicals that harm the immune system and mental health.
E-Waste Management - 3 R’s
1. Reduce: Buy electronics only when needed, use them fully.
2. Reuse: Donate or sell working devices; called refurbishing.
3. Recycle: Recover materials from non-repairable devices.
🇮🇳 E-Waste Management in India
• Environmental Protection Act, 1986: "Polluter Pays Principle" – the polluter must pay for
environmental damage.
• CPCB Guidelines: Manufacturers are responsible for safe disposal.
• DIT Guidelines: Reuse and recycling encouraged through technical manuals.
• Companies run e-waste recycling programs to collect devices.
Health Impact of Digital Devices
• Excessive screen time causes eye strain, stress, obesity, etc.
• Poor posture causes back, neck, and wrist problems.
• Prolonged use of devices can cause physical and psychological issues.
What is Ergonomics?
• Ergonomics is the science of designing or arranging workplaces, furniture, and devices to make them
safe, efficient, and comfortable for users.
• It helps reduce physical strain, fatigue, and injuries caused by prolonged use of digital devices.
Ergonomic Guidelines for Computer Usage:
• Monitor Position:
o The top of the screen should be at or just below eye level.
o The screen should be at a distance of 19–24 inches from your eyes.
o The viewing angle should be around 15° to 20° downward from the horizontal eye level.
o Chair and Posture: Feet should rest flat on the
floor or on a footrest.
o Knees should be at a 90° angle.
o Back should be straight and supported by the
chair’s backrest.
• Keyboard and Mouse:
o Should be placed at elbow height.
o Elbows should form a 90° angle.
o Wrists should be in a neutral (straight) position
while typing.
• Breaks and Eye Care:
o Follow the 20-20-20 rule: Every 20
minutes, look at something 20 feet away for 20
seconds.
• Blink frequently to prevent dry eyes
o .
Societal impacts
One of the most significant outcomes of the progress of information technology is probably electronic
commerce over the Internet, a new way of conducting business. Though only a few years old, it may radically
alter economic activities and the social environment. Already, it affects such large sectors as communications,
finance and retail trade and might expand to areas such as education and health services. It implies the seamless
application of information and communication technology along the entire value chain of a business that is
conducted electronically. The following sections will focus on the impacts of information technology and
electronic commerce on business models, commerce, market structure, workplace, labour market, education,
private life and society as a whole.
Digital Footprint
A digital footprint is data that is left behind when users have been online. There are two types of digital
footprints which are passive and active.
A passive footprint is made when information is collected from the user without the person knowing this is
happening.
An active digital footprint is where the user has deliberately shared information about themselves either
by using social media sites or by using websites.
An example of a passive digital footprint would be where a user has been online and information has been
stored on an online database. This can include where they came from, when the footprint was created and a
user IP address. A footprint can also be analysed offline and can be stored in files which an administrator can
access. These would include information on what that machine might have been used for, but not who had
performed the actions.
An example of an active digital footprint is where a user might have logged into a site when editing or making
comments such as on an online forum or a social media site. The registered name or profile can be linked to
the posts that have been made and it is surprisingly easy to find out a lot about a person from the trails you
leave behind.
Net and Communication Etiquettes
1. Be respectful.
2. Be aware of how your comments might be read:
3. Be careful with humour and sarcasm
4. Think about who can see what you have shared.
5. Remember to check friend requests and group invites before accepting them.
6. Take time to have a read of the rules of conduct/ community standards.
7. Be forgiving.
Data Protection
Data protection is a set of strategies and processes you can use to secure the privacy, availability, and integrity
of your data. It is sometimes also called data security or information privacy. A data protection strategy is vital
for any organization that collects, handles, or stores sensitive data.
Data Protection vs Data Privacy
Although both data protection and privacy are important and the two often come together, these terms do not
represent the same thing.
One addresses policies, the other mechanisms
Data privacy is focused on defining who has access to data while data protection focuses on applying those
restrictions. Data privacy defines the policies that data protection tools and processes employ.
Creating data privacy guidelines does not ensure that unauthorized users don’t have access. Likewise, you can
restrict access with data protections while still leaving sensitive data vulnerable. Both are needed to ensure
that data remains secure.
Another important distinction between privacy and protection is who is typically in control. For privacy, users
can often control how much of their data is shared and with whom. For protection, it is up to the companies
handling data to ensure that it remains private. Compliance regulations reflect this difference and are created
to help ensure that users’ privacy requests are enacted by companies.
Data Protection Technologies and Practices that Can Help You Protect User Data
When it comes to protecting your data, there are many storage and management options you can choose from.
Solutions can help you restrict access, monitor activity, and respond to threats. Here are some of the most
commonly used practices and technologies:
1. Data loss prevention (DLP)—a set of strategies and tools that you can use to prevent data from being
stolen, lost, or accidentally deleted. Data loss prevention solutions often include several tools to protect
against and recover from data loss.
 2. Storage with built-in data protection—modern storage equipment provides built-in disk clustering
and redundancy. For example, Cloudian’s Hyperstore provides up to 14 nines of durability, low cost
enabling storage of large volumes of data, and fast access for minimal RTO / RPO.
3. Firewalls—utilities that enable you to monitor and filter network traffic. You can use firewalls to
ensure that only authorized users are allowed to access or transfer data.
4. Authentication and authorization—controls that help you verify credentials and assure that user
privileges are applied correctly. These measures are typically used as part of an identity and access
management (IAM) solution and in combination with role-based access controls (RBAC).
5. Encryption—alters data content according to an algorithm that can only be reversed with the right
encryption key. Encryption protects your data from unauthorized access even if data is stolen by
making it unreadable. Learn more in our article: Data Encryption: An Introduction.
6. Endpoint protection—protects gateways to your network, including ports, routers, and connected
devices. Endpoint protection software typically enables you to monitor your network perimeter and to
filter traffic as needed.
7. Data erasure—limits liability by deleting data that is no longer needed. This can be done after data is
processed and analyzed or periodically when data is no longer relevant. Erasing unnecessary data is a
requirement of many compliance regulations, such as GDPR. For more information about GDPR,
check out our guide: GDPR Data Protection.
Intellectual Property Rights
Property
The word property is generally used to mean a possession or, more specifically, something to which the owner
has legal rights
Intellectual Property
It refers to creations of the intellect used in commerce:
⮚ Inventions
⮚ Literary and Artistic work
⮚ Symbols
⮚ Names
⮚ Images and designs
Interventions (patent)
INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY Trademarks
Commercial names
Location Specific brands
Literary Works
Novels
Poems
Plays
Film & Media Works
Categories of Intellectual
Property: -
Artistic Works
COPYRIGHTS Drawings
Paintings
Photographs
Sculptures
⮚ Architectural
designs -
Images and
designs

Copyright laws protect Intellectual property

Copyright
It is a legal concept , enacted by most governments giving creator of original work exclusive rights to it,
usually for a limited period.
Plagiarism
It is stealing someone’s intellectual work and representing it as your own work without citing the source of
information.
Copying someone’s work and then passing it off as one’s own
▪ Act of stealing
▪ Copying information and not giving the author credit for it
▪ Copying programs written by other programmers and claiming them as your own
▪ Involves lying, cheating, theft and dishonesty
Measure to avoid Plagiarism:
▪ Plagiarism is a bad practice and should be avoided by the following measures:
▪ Use your own words and ideas.
▪ Always provide reference or give credit to the source from where you have received
your information.
▪ You must give credit whenever you use
▪ Another person’s idea, opinion, or theory.
▪ Quotations of another person’s actual spoken or written words
▪ Paraphrase of another person’s spoken or written words.
Licensing:
Software Licensing is the legal right to run or the privilege gives to you by a company to access their
application or program or software.
For example:
When we purchase for proprietary software such as Windows OS, then we must have noticed that it comes
with a license agreement which is to be read first and to be agreed upon for the successful installation and
usage of the software.
License agreements typically allow the software to run on a limited number of computers and allow copies to
be made only for backup purpose.
Advantages of using Licensed software
1. By using licensed software, you are able to contribute to the further development of the program you are
using.
2. It comes with the outright support not found in “pirated” software.
Free and open-source software
Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified as both free software and open-source
software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and
the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the
software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under
restrictive copyright licensing and the source code is usually hidden from the users.
Free software
Free Software Foundation (FSF), defines free software as a matter of liberty not price, and it upholds the Four
Essential Freedoms.
Four essential freedoms of Free Software
● The freedom to run the program as you wishes, for any purpose (freedom 0).
● The freedom to study how the program works and change it so it does your computing as you wish
(freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
● The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help others (freedom 2).
● The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this you
can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a
precondition for this.
Open Source Software
Open-source software is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder
grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for
any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner.

***** Hard Work Never Goes in Vein*****