UNIT -3 1.

List the most important mechanical and technological properties Mechanical Properties Under the action of various kinds of forces, the behavior of the material is studied that measures the strength and lasting characteristic of a material in service. The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial importance in the design of tools, machines and structures. Theses properties are structure sensitive in the sense that they depend upon the crystal structure and its bonding forces, and especially upon the nature and behavior of the imperfections whichexist within the crystal itself or at the grain boundaries. The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. The main mechanical properties of the metal are strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, toughness, brittleness, hardness, formability, castability and weldability. These properties can be well understood with help of tensile test and stress strain diagram. The few important and useful mechanical properties are explained below. 1. Elasticity It is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. It can also be referred as the power of material to come back to its original position after deformation when the stress or load is removed. It is also called as the tensile property of the material. 2. Proportional limit It is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain

to stress. Though its value is difficult to measure, yet it can be used as the important applications for building precision instruments, springs, etc. 3. Elastic limit Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the proportional limit without taking a permanent set. The greatest stress that a material can endure without taking up some permanent set is called elastic limit. Beyond this limit, the metal does not regain its original form and permanent set will occurs. 4. Yield point At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly ceases, offering resistance to tensile forces. This means, the metals flow and a relatively large permanent set takes place without a noticeable increase in load. This point is called yield point. Certain metals such as mild steel exhibit a definite yield point, in which case the yield stress is simply the stress at this point. 5. Strength Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces with breakdown or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a material to an externally applied force is called stress. The capacity of bearing load by metal and to withstand destruction under the action of external loads is known as strength. The stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. This property of material therefore determines the ability to withstand stress without failure. Strength varies according to the type of loading. It is always possible to assess tensile, compressive, shearing and torsional strengths. The maximum stress that any material can withstand before destruction is called its ultimate strength. The tenacity of the material is its ultimate strength in tension.

6. Stiffness It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity. A material that suffers slight or very less deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness or rigidity. For instance suspended beams of steel and aluminium may both be strong enough to carry the required load but the aluminium beam will sag or deflect further. That means, the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam. If the material behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hooks law, its stiffness is measured by the Youngs modulus of elasticity (E). The higher is the value of the Youngs modulus, the stiffer is the material. In tensile and compressive stress, it is called modulus of stiffness or modulus of elasticity; in shear, the modulus of rigidity, and this is usually 40% of the value of Youngs modulus for commonly used materials; in volumetric distortion, the bulk modulus. 7. Plasticity Plasticity is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is required in forging, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work. It is the ability or tendency of material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without its rupture or its failure. Plastic deformation takes place only after the elastic range of material has been exceeded. Such property of material is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot or cold working processes. Materials such as clay, lead, etc. are plastic at room temperature and steel is plastic

at forging temperature. This property generally increases with increase in temperature of materials. 8. Ductility Ductility is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of tensile load. A ductile material must be strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percent reduction in area which is often used as empirical measures of ductility. The materials those possess more than 5% elongation are called as ductile materials. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing ductility are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead. 9. Malleability Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under applications of heavy compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing malleability are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc. are recognized as highly malleable metals. 10. Hardness Hardness is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal. A harder metal can always cut or put impression to the softer metals by virtue of its hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It embraces many different

properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc. 11. Brittleness Brittleness is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. The materials having less than 5% elongation under loading behavior are said to be brittle materials. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Glass, cast iron, brass and ceramics are considered as brittle material. 12. Creep When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation (in form of a crack which may further propagate further towards creep failure) called creep. 2. Explain the two modes of plastic deformation in metals with neat sketch Plastic deformation Slip and twinning The limit of the elastic range cannot be defined exactly but may be considered to be that value of the stress below which the amount of plasticity (irreversible deformation) is negligible, and above which the amount of plastic deformation is far greater than the elastic deformation. If we consider the deformation of a metal in a tensile test, one or other of two types of curve may be obtained stress-strain curve characteristic of iron, from which it can be seen that plastic deformation begins abruptly at A and continues initially with no increase in stress. The point A is known as the yield point and the stress at which it occurs is the yield stress. Figure 7.1 b shows a stress-strain curve

characteristic of copper, from which it will be noted that the transition to the plastic range is gradual. No abrupt yielding takes place and in this case the stress required to start macroscopic plastic flow is known as the flow stress. Once the yield or flow stress has been exceeded plastic or permanent deformation occurs, and this is found to take place by one of two simple processes, slip (or glide) and twinning. During slip, shown in Figure 7.9a, the top half of the crystal moves over the bottom half along certain crystallographic planes, known as slip planes, in such a way that the atoms move forward by a whole number of lattice vectors; as a result the continuity of the lattice is maintained. During twinning (Figure 7.9b) the atomic movements are not whole lattice vectors, and the lattice generated in the deformed region, although the same as the parent lattice, is oriented in a twin relationship to it. It will also be observed that in contrast to slip, the sheared region in twinning occurs over many atom planes, the atoms in each plane being moved forward by the same amount relative to those of the plane below them.

3. Explain different type metallic fracture

If a specimen is subjected to high stress beyond its strength, it fails and ultimately fractures in two or more parts. During the description of the tensile test, we have already come across fractures of ductile and brittle material. The ductile fracture occur after considerable plastic deformation and shows a BHN = Load on ball (kg) Area of ball impression in mm2 characteristic reduction in the cross-sectional area near the fractured portion. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly when a small crack in the cross-section of the material grows

resulting in a complete fracture. But such fracture does not show much plastic deformation. Actually, by a careful examination of the fractured surface and the macro and micro metallurgical examination of the fractured specimen, much interesting information as to the probable cause of its failure can be deduced by an experienced metallurgist. Apart from the ductile and brittle type of fractures, we also have fractures caused by FATIGUE and CREEP of material. FATIGUE FAILURE It has been noticed that materials often fail or fracture at a stress level far below their strength, if the stress is either (i) alternating type or (ii) it is varying periodically. What is meant by alternating stress? An example will make this clear. Consider an axle fitted with two wheels. The axle bears the weight of the vehicle and at the same time it rotates along with wheels. Because of weight, the axle under goes a little deflection causing compressive stress in its top half and tensile stress in bottom half of the crosssection. But since it is rotating, with every 180 rotation, the bottom half becomes the top half and vice versa. Thus the nature of stress at any point in the axle keep alternating between compression and tension due to its rotation. A varying stress cycle means that the magnitude of the stress keeps reducing and increasing periodically although its sign does not change. If the material is subjected to several million cycles of either the alternating or varying stress, it gets fatigued and fails even though the magnitude of such stresses may be far lower as compared to its strength.Fortunately, there is a level of alternating and varying stress, which the material is able to withstand without failure even if it is subjected to infinite number of cycles. This is called the ENDURANCE LIMIT. A designer ensures that a component subject to fatigue in service is so designed that its actual stress level remains below the endurance limit. The visual examination of a fatigue fracture shows three distinct zones. These are: (i) The point of crack initiation, it is the point from where the crack may have originated e.g. a notch like a key way or

some materials defect like an impurity, or even a surface blemish. (ii) The area of crack propagation during service. This area is usually characterised by circular ring-like scratch marks with point of crack initiation as the centre. (iii) Remaining area of cross-section showing signs of sudden breakage. As a result of crack propagation with time, a stage comes, when the remaining cross-sectional area becomes too small to sustain the stress and fractures suddenly. CREEP FAILURE. Failure of material can take place even under steady loads within the strength of the material. This happens if the subjected components remain under steady loads for a very longtime especially when they are subjected to high temperature conditions. Some common examples are stays in boilers, steam turbine blades, furnace parts etc. Such failures are termed creep-failures due to the fact the material continues to deform plastically under such conditions although at a very very slow rate. But over long periods of time, the effect of creep can become appreciable resulting in ultimate failure of the component 4.Explain testing procedure for procedure for Vickers hardness. Rockwell hardness and Brinell hardness tester Vickers Hardness Test The principle of the Vickers Hardness method is similar to the Brinell method. The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid. The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell indenter, therefore this method is more accurate. The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied for 30 seconds. The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:

HV = 1.854*F/ D Where F-applied load, kg D length of the impression diagonal, mm The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester.

Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball of 2.5, 5 or 10 mm in diameter is used as indenter. The loading force is in the range of 300N to 30000N (300N for testing lead alloys, 5000N for testing aluminum alloys, 10000N for copper alloys, 30000N for testing steels). The Brinell Hardness Number (HB) is calculated by the formula: HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D - Di))) Where F- applied load, kg D indenter diameter, mm Di indentation diameter, mm. In order to eliminate an influence of the specimen supporting base, the specimen should be seven times (as minimum) thicker than indentation depth for hard alloys and fifteen times thicker than indentation depth for soft alloys. Rockwell Hardness Test

In the Rockwell test the depth of the indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be

either a hardened steel ball with diameter 1/16, 1/8 or a spherical diamond cone of 120 angle (Brale). Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial Test) and then the indicator, measuring the penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the major load (60, 100 or 150 kgf)is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal of the major load. Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having no units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods). Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16 diameter steel ball at 100 kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B). Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell hardness scale C). An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by the method HR (Hardness Rockwell). Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test Rockwell Superficial Test is coatings, carburized surfaces. applied for thin strips,

Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are used in the superficial test. Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T (1/16 steel ball) or N (diamond cone). 62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16 steel ball indenter) by the Rockwell Superficial method (R).

UNIT -2

1. What is mean my carburizing of steel? Briefly explain the various type of carburizing Carburizing Carburizing can be of three types 1. Pack carburizing 2. Liquid carburizing and 3. Gas carburizing The above carburizing processes are discussed as under. Pack Carburizing Metals to be carburized such as low carbon steel is placed in cast iron or steel boxes containing a rich material in carbon like charcoal, crushed bones, potassium Ferrocyanide or charred leather. Such boxes are made of heat resisting steel which are then closed and sealed with clay. Long parts to be carburized are kept vertical in -boxes. The boxes are heated to a temperature 900C to 950C according to type of steel for absorbing carbon on the outer surface. The carbon enters the on the metal to form a solid solution with iron and converts the outer surface into high carbon steel. Consequently pack hardened steel pieces have carbon content up to 0.85% in their outer case. After this treatment, the carburized parts are cooled in boxes. Only plane carbon steel is carburized in this process for hardening the outer skin and refining the structure of the core to make it soft and tough. Small gears are case hardened by this process for which they are enclosed in the cast iron or steel box containing a material

rich in carbon, such as small piece of charcoal and then heat to a temperature slightly above the critical range. Depth of hardness from 0.8-1.6 mm is attained in three to four hours. The gears are then allowed to cool slowly within the box and then removed. The second stage consists of reheating the gears (so obtained) to about 900C and then quenched in oil so that its structure is refined, brittleness removed and the core becomes soft and tough. The metal is then reheated to about 700C and quenched in water so that outer surface of gear, which had been rendered soft during the preceding operation, is again hardened. Liquid Carburizing Liquid carburizing is carried out in a container filled with a molten salt, such as sodium cyanide. This bath is heated by electrical immersion elements or by a gas burner and stirring is done to ensure uniform temperature. This process gives a thin hardened layer up to 0.08 mm thickness. Parts which are to be case-hardened are dipped into liquid bath solution containing calcium cyanide and polymerized hydro-cyanide acid or sodium or potassium cyanide along-with some salt. Bath temperature is kept from 815C to 900C. The furnace is usually carbon steel case pot which may be by fired by oil, gas or electrically. If only selected portions of the components are to be carburized, then the remaining portions are covered by copper plating. There are some advantages of the liquid bath carburizing which are given as under. Advantages 1. Greater depth of penetration possible in this process. 2. Selective carburizing is possible if needed. 3. Uniform heating will occur in this process.

4. Little deformation or distortion of articles occurs in this process. 5. Ease of carburizing for a wider range of products. 6. It is time saving process. 7. Parts leave the bath with a clean and bright finish. 8. There is no scale in this process as occur in pack hardening. Gas Carburising In gas carburizing method, the parts to be gas carburized are surrounded by a hydrocarbon gas in the furnace. The common carburizing gases are methane, ethane, propane, butane and carbon monoxide are used in this process. Carbon containing gas such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6) or town gas is introduced in the furnace where low carbon steel is placed. The furnace is either gas fired or electrically heated. Average gas carburizing temperature usually varies from 870 to 950C. Thickness of case hardened portion up to 11 mm can be easily obtained in 6 hours. The carburized parts can heat treated after carburizing. Steel components are quenched in oil after carburizing and then heated again to form fine grain sized austenite and then quenched in water to form martensite in surface layers. This gives maximum toughness of the core and hardness of the surface of product.

2. Describe flame hardening process Flame Hardening It consists of moving an oxyacetylene flame, over the part where hardening is required. Immediately after this, the heated portion is quenched by means of water spray or air passing over it. Temperature attained by the surface is controlled and the rate of cooling is controlled by selecting a suitable medium. Flame hardening is suitable for large sized articles where only some portions of the surface requiring hardening and hence there is no need to heat the whole article in the furnace. Metal is heated by means of oxy-acetylene flame for a sufficient time unto hardening range and than quenched by spray of water on it. The hardened depth can be easily controlled by adjusting and regulating the heating time, temperature, flame and water spray. The main advantages of the process is that a portion of metal can be hardened by this process, leaving rest surface unaffected by confining the flame at relevant part only where hardening is required. This process is best suited to smal1 numbers of jobs which requiring short heating time. This method is highly suitable for stationary type of larger and bulky jobs.

3. Explain induction hardening process Induction Hardening Induction hardening is accomplished by placing the part in a high frequency alternating magnetic field. It differs from surface hardening in the way that hardness of surface is not due to the increase in carbon content but due to rapid heating followed by controlled quenching. In this process, a high frequency current is introduced in the metal surface and its temperature is raised up to hardening range. As this temperature is attained, the current supply is cut off instantaneously water is sprayed on the surface. Heat is generated by the rapid reversals of polarity. The primary current is carried by a water cooled copper tube and is induced into the surface layers of the work piece. Thin walled sections require high frequencies and thicker sections must require low frequencies for adequate penetration of the electrical energy. The heating effect is due to induced eddy currents and hysteresis losses in the surface material. Some portion of the metal part is heated above the hardening temperature and is then quenched to obtain martensite on the metal surface. There are some advantages of this process which are given as under. Advantages Induction hardening is comparatively quicker. A minimum distortion or oxidation is encountered because of the short cycle time. The operation is very fast and comparatively large parts can be processed in a minimum time. There are some applications of this process which are given as under.

Application Induction hardening is widely used for hardening surfaces of crankshafts, cam shafts, gear automobile components, spline shafts, spindles, brake drums etc. It is also used for producing hard surfaces on cam, axles, shafts and gears