Dave Shattuck

University of Houston
University of Houston ECE 2300
Circuit Analysis
Dr. Dave Shattuck
Associate Professor, ECE Dept.
Lecture Set #10
Thvenins and Nortons Theorems
including Dependent Sources
Nortons Theorem
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Overview
Nortons Theorem
In this part, we will cover the following
topics:
Nortons Theorem
Finding Nortons equivalents
Example of finding a Nortons
equivalent
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Textbook Coverage
This material is introduced in different ways in
different textbooks. Approximately this same
material is covered in your textbook in the
following sections:
Electric Circuits 8
th
Ed. by Nilsson and Riedel:
Section 4.10
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Nortons Theorem Defined
Nortons Theorem is another equivalent circuit. Nortons Theorem can
be stated as follows:
Any circuit made up of resistors and sources, viewed from two
terminals of that circuit, is equivalent to a current source in parallel with a
resistance.
The current source is equal to
the short-circuit current for the
two-terminal circuit, and the
resistance is equal to the
equivalent resistance of the circuit.
short-circuit current, and
equivalent resistance.
N
N
i
R

A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
Note 1
It is probably obvious to you, if you studied the last two
parts of this module, that if Thvenins Theorem is valid, then
Nortons Theorem is valid, because Nortons Theorem is
simply a source transformation of Thvenins Theorem. Note
that the resistance value is the same in both cases, that is,
R
TH
= R
N
= R
EQ
.
open-circuit voltage,
short-circuit current, and
equivalent resistance.
OC
SC
EQ
v
i
R

A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
i
N
R
N
i
SC
i
SC
Note 2
The polarity of the
current source with
respect to the terminals
is important. If the
reference polarity for the
short-circuit current is
as given here (flowing
from A to B), then the
reference polarity for the
current source must be
as given here (current
from B to A).
Any circuit made up of resistors and sources, viewed from two
terminals of that circuit, is equivalent to a current source in parallel with a
resistance.
The current source is equal to the short-circuit current for the two-
terminal circuit, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance of
the circuit.
open-circuit voltage,
short-circuit current, and
equivalent resistance.
OC
SC
EQ
v
i
R

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Note 3
As with all equivalent
circuits, these two
are equivalent only
with respect to the
things connected to
the equivalent
circuits.
Any circuit made up of resistors and sources, viewed from two
terminals of that circuit, is equivalent to a current source in
parallel with a resistance.
The current source is equal to the short-circuit current for the two-
terminal circuit, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.

open-circuit voltage,
short-circuit current, and
equivalent resistance.
OC
SC
EQ
v
i
R

A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Note 4
Any circuit made up of resistors and sources, viewed from two
terminals of that circuit, is equivalent to a current source in
parallel with a resistance.
The current source is equal to the short-circuit current for the two-
terminal circuit, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
open-circuit voltage,
short-circuit current, and
equivalent resistance.
OC
SC
EQ
v
i
R

When we have
dependent sources
in the circuit shown
here, it will make
some calculations
more difficult, but
does not change the
validity of the
theorem.
A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
i
N
R
N
v
OC
-
+
v
OC
-
+
Short-Circuit Current and
Open-Circuit Voltage
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
When we look at the
circuit on the right,
we can see that the
open-circuit voltage
is equal to i
N
R
N
,
which is also i
SC
R
EQ
.
Thus, we obtain the
important expression
for v
OC
, shown here.
The open-circuit voltage that results from the Norton equivalent is
equal to the product of the Norton current source and the Norton
resistance. This leads to the same equation that we used previously, for
the Thvenin equivalent,
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Extra note
This equation is not really Ohms
Law. It looks like Ohms Law, and
has the same form. However, it
should be noted that Ohms Law
relates voltage and current for a
resistor. This relates the values of
voltages, currents and resistances in
two different connections to an
equivalent circuit. However, if you
wish to remember this by relating it
to Ohms Law, that is fine.
We have shown that for the Norton equivalent, the
open-circuit voltage is equal to the short-circuit current
times the equivalent resistance. This is fundamental
and important. However, it is not Ohms Law.
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Remember that
i
SC
= i
N
,
and
R
EQ
= R
N
.
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Finding the Norton Equivalent
We have shown that for the Norton equivalent, the open-circuit
voltage is equal to the short-circuit current times the equivalent
resistance. In general we can find the Norton equivalent of a circuit
by finding
any two of the following three things:
1) the open circuit voltage, v
OC
,
2) the short-circuit current, i
SC
, and
3) the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
.

Once we find any two, we can
find the third by using this equation,


.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Remember that
i
SC
= i
N
,
and
R
EQ
= R
N
.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Finding the Norton
Equivalent Note 1
We can find the Norton equivalent of a circuit by finding
any two of the following three things:
1) the open circuit voltage, v
OC
,
2) the short-circuit current, i
SC
= i
N
, and
3) the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
= R
N
.
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
SC
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
+
-
v
OC
One more time, the
reference polarities of
our voltages and
currents matter. If we
pick v
OC
at A with
respect to B, then we
need to pick i
SC
going
from A to B. If not, we
need to change the
sign in this equation.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Finding the Norton
Equivalent Note 2
We can find the Norton equivalent of a circuit by finding
any two of the following three things:
1) the open circuit voltage, v
OC
,
2) the short-circuit current, i
SC
= i
N
, and
3) the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
= R
N
.
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
SC
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
+
-
v
OC
As an example, if we
pick v
OC
and i
SC
with the
reference polarities
given here, we need to
change the sign in the
equation as shown.
This is a consequence
of the sign in Ohms
Law. For a further
explanation, see the
next slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
A
B
i
N
R
N
v
OC
-
+
i
N
=
i
SC
Finding the Norton Equivalent Note 3
We can find the Norton equivalent of a circuit by finding any
two of the following three things:
1) the open circuit voltage, v
OC
,
2) the short-circuit current, i
SC
= i
N
, and
3) the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
= R
N
.
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
SC
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
+
-
v
OC
As an example, if we pick v
OC
and i
SC
with the
reference polarities given here, we need to change the
sign in the equation as shown. This is a consequence
of Ohms Law, which for resistor R
N
requires a minus
sign, since the voltage and current are in the active
sign convention.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
A
B
i
N
R
N
v
OC
-
+
i
N
=
i
SC
Finding the Norton Equivalent Note 4
We can find the Norton equivalent of a circuit by finding any
two of the following three things:
1) the open circuit voltage, v
OC
,
2) the short-circuit current, i
SC
= i
N
, and
3) the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
= R
N
.
.
OC SC EQ
v i R
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
i
SC
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
+
-
v
OC
Be very careful here! We have labeled the current
through R
N
as i
SC
. This is true only for this special
case. This i
SC
is not the current through the open
circuit. The current through an open circuit is always
zero. The current i
SC
only goes through R
N
because of
the open circuit.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Notes
1. We can find the Norton equivalent of any circuit made up of voltage
sources, current sources, and resistors. The sources can be any
combination of dependent and independent sources.
2. We can find the values of the Norton equivalent by finding the open-
circuit voltage and short-circuit current. The reference polarities of these
quantities are important.
3. To find the equivalent resistance, we need to set the independent
sources equal to zero. However, the dependent sources will remain. This
requires some care. We will discuss finding the equivalent resistance with
dependent sources in the fourth part of the module.
4. As with all equivalent circuits, the Norton equivalent is equivalent only
with respect to the things connected to it.
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem
We wish to find the Norton equivalent of the
circuit below, as seen from terminals A and B.
Note that there is an unstated assumption here; we assume
that we will later connect something to these two terminals. Having
found the Norton equivalent, we will be able to solve that circuit
more easily by using that equivalent.
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 1
We wish to find the open-circuit voltage v
OC
with the
polarity defined in the circuit given below.
In general, remember, we need to find two out of
three of the quantities v
OC
, i
SC
, and R
EQ
. In this problem
we will find two, and then find the third just as a check.
In general, finding the third quantity is not required.
v
OC
-
+
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 1 (Note)
We wish to find the open-circuit voltage v
OC
with the polarity defined in the
circuit given below.
Some students may be tempted to remove resistor R
3
from
this circuit. We should not do this. In future problems, if we
are asked to find the equivalent circuit seen by resistor R
3
,
then we assume that the resistor does not see itself, and
remove it. In this problem, we are not given this instruction.
Leave the resistor in place, even though the open-circuit
voltage is across it.
v
OC
-
+
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 2
We wish to find the voltage v
OC
. Writing KCL
at the node encircled with a dashed red line, we
have
5 4 3 2
0.
S OC OC OC
v
R
v
R
v v
R R

v
OC
-
+
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 3
Substituting in values, we have

54[V]
0, or by solving
37[ ] 22[ ] 27[ ]
0.1095[S] 2[A], or
18.3[V].
OC OC OC
OC
OC
v v v
v
v

W W W

v
OC
-
+
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
R
2
=
27[W]
Example Problem Step 4
Next, we will find the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
.
The first step in this solution is to set the independent
sources equal to zero. We then have the circuit below.
Note that the
voltage source
becomes a short
circuit, and the
current source
becomes an open
circuit. These
represent zero-
valued sources.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 5
To find the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
, we simply combine
resistances in parallel and in series. The resistance between
terminals A and B, which we are calling R
EQ
, is found by
recognizing that R
5
and R
4
are in series. That series combination
is in parallel with R
2
. That parallel combination is in parallel with
R
3
. We have

5 4 2 3
|| || 37[ ] || 27[ ] || 22[ ]. Solving, we get
9.13[ ].
EQ
EQ
R R R R R
R
W W W
W
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 5 (Note)
To find the equivalent resistance, R
EQ
, we simply combine resistances in
parallel and in series. The resistance between terminals A and B, which we
are calling R
EQ
, is found by recognizing that R
5
and R
4
are in series. That
series combination is in parallel with R
2
. That parallel combination is in
parallel with R
3
. We have

5 4 2 3
|| || 37[ ] || 27[ ] || 22[ ]. Solving, we get
9.13[ ].
EQ
EQ
R R R R R
R
W W W
W
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
R
2
=
27[W]
Some students may
have difficulty
getting this
expression.
Remember that we
are finding the
resistance seen at
these two terminals,
A and B. The idea
is that we would
have this resistance
if you connected a
source to these two
terminals.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 6 (Solution)
To complete this problem, we would typically redraw
the circuit, showing the complete Nortons equivalent,
along with terminals A and B. This has been done here.
To get this, we need to use our equation to get the
Norton current,
A
B
i
N
=
2.00[A]
R
EQ
=R
N
=
9.13[W]
. We will want to
solve for , so we write
18.3[V]
2.00[A].
9.13[ ]
OC N EQ
N
OC
N
EQ
v i R
i
v
i
R

W
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 7 (Check)
Lets check this solution, by finding the short-circuit current in
the original circuit, and compare it to the short-circuit current in the
Nortons equivalent. We redraw the original circuit, with the short
circuit current shown. We wish to find this short circuit current.
i
SC
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 8 (Check)
We start by noting that that there is no current through resistor R
3
,
since there is no voltage across it. Another way of saying this is that the
resistor R
3
is in parallel with a short circuit. The parallel combination of
the resistor and the short circuit, will be a short circuit.
The same exact argument can be made for the series combination of
R
5
and R
4
. This series combination is in parallel with a short circuit.
Thus, we can simplify this circuit to the circuit on the next slide.
i
SC
R
1
=
39[W]
R
3
=
22[W]
R
5
=
27[W]
R
4
=
10[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 9 (Check)
Here, we
have removed
resistors R
3
, R
4

and R
5
since
they do not
affect the short
circuit current,
i
SC
. When we
look at this
circuit, we note
that the voltage
source v
S
is
directly across
the resistor R
2
,
and so we can
write directly,
i
SC
R
1
=
39[W]
A
B
i
S
=
9[A]
+
-
v
S
=
54[V]
R
2
=
27[W]
2
54[V]
. Solving, we get
27[ ]
2.00[A].
SC
SC
S
i
i
v
R

W

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 10 (Check)
This short-circuit current is the same result that we found in the
Nortons Equivalent earlier.
In retrospect, it is now clear that we did not take the best possible
approach to this solution. If we had solved for the short-circuit current,
and the equivalent resistance, we would have gotten the solution more
quickly and more easily.
One of our goals is to be so good at circuit analysis that we can see
ahead of time which approach will be the best for a given problem.
A
B
i
SC
=
i
N
=
2.00[A]
R
EQ
=R
N
=
9.13[W]
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
What is the deal here?
Is this worth all this trouble?
This is a good question. The deal here is that Nortons
Theorem is a very big deal. It is difficult to convey the
full power of it at this stage in your education.
However, you may be able to imagine that it is very
useful to be able to take a very complicated circuit,
and replace it with a pretty simple circuit. In many
cases, it is very definitely worth all this trouble.
Nortons Theorem is often treated as
being less important than Thvenins
Theorem. Actually, they are of equal
importance, since they say essentially
the same thing. One is no more important
than the other.
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Thvenins and Nortons
Equivalents and Dependent
Sources
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Overview
Thvenins and Nortons Equivalents and
Dependent Sources
In this part, we will cover the following
topics:
Dependent Sources and Equivalent
Resistance
The Test-Source Method
Example of finding an equivalent
resistance with a dependent source
present
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Textbook Coverage
This material is introduced in different ways in
different textbooks. Approximately this same
material is covered in your textbook in the
following sections:
Electric Circuits 8
th
Ed. by Nilsson and Riedel:
Section 4.11
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Thvenins and Nortons Theorems
Reviewed
Thvenins Theorem and Nortons Theorem can be stated as follows:
Any circuit made up of resistors and sources, viewed from two
terminals of that circuit, is equivalent to a voltage source in series with a
resistance, or to a current source in parallel with a resistance.
The voltage source is equal to the open-circuit voltage for the two-
terminal circuit, the current source is equal to the short-circuit current for
that circuit, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance of that
circuit.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Equivalent Resistance Reviewed
When we find the equivalent resistance for a Thvenins equivalent or a
Nortons equivalent, we set the independent sources equal to zero, and
find the equivalent resistance of what remains.
When a dependent source is present, trying to find the equivalent
resistance results in a situation we have not dealt with yet. What do we
mean by the equivalent resistance of a dependent source?
The answer must be stated carefully. If the ratio of voltage to current
for something is a constant, then that something can be said to have an
equivalent resistance, since it is behaving as a resistance.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Equivalent Resistance of a Source
So, what we mean by the equivalent resistance of a
dependent source is that in this case the ratio of voltage to
current is a constant. Then the source can be said to have an
equivalent resistance, since it is behaving as a resistance.
The equivalent resistance of a dependent source depends on
what voltage or current it depends on, and where that voltage
or current is in the circuit. It is not easy to predict the answer.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
No Equivalent Resistance for an
Independent Source
The equivalent resistance of a dependent source, in this
case, is the ratio of voltage to current, which is a constant.
Then the source can be said to have an equivalent resistance,
since it is behaving as a resistance. This will only be
meaningful for a dependent source. It is not meaningful to talk
about the equivalent resistance of an independent source.
The ratio of voltage to current will not be constant for an
independent source.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Simple Example with a Dependent
Source
We will try to explain this by starting with a simple example.
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit below,
as seen at terminals A and B.
This will mean that the ratio of the voltage across the
circuit, labeled v
Q
, to the ratio of the current through the circuit,
labeled i
Q
, must be a constant. Lets find that constant by
finding the ratio.
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Simple Example with a Dependent
Source Step 1
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit below, as seen
at terminals A and B.
Lets find the ratio of the voltage across the circuit, labeled v
Q
, to the
ratio of the current through the circuit, labeled i
Q
. This must be a constant.
Lets look first at the circuit equivalent on the right. We note that from
Ohms Law applied to R
X
, we can say
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
.
X Q X
v i R
Next, we apply KCL at
the A node to write that
3 .
X Q X
i i i
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Simple Example with a Dependent
Source Step 2
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit
below, as seen at terminals A and B. On the last slide we
found v
Q
, and we found i
Q
. We take the ratio of them, and plug
in the expressions that we found for each. When we do this,
we get
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
Note that ratio is a
constant. The ratio
has units of resistance,
which is what we
expect when we take a
ratio of a voltage to a
current.
100[ ]
25[ ].
3 4 4 4
X X X X X
X X
Q
X Q
i R i R R
i i i
v
i
W
W

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Simple Example with a Dependent
Source Step 2 (Note)
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit
below, as seen at terminals A and B. Lets find the ratio of the
voltage across the circuit, labeled v
Q
, to the ratio of the current
through the circuit, labeled i
Q
. We take the ratio of them, and
get
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
The dependent source is
in parallel with the
resistor R
X
. Since the
parallel combination is
25[W], the dependent
source must be behaving
as if it were a 33.33[W]
resistor. However, this
value depends on R
X
; in
fact, it is R
X
/3.
100[ ]
25[ ].
3 4 4 4
X X X X X
X X
Q
X Q
i R i R R
i i i
v
i
W
W

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
2
nd
Simple Example with a
Dependent Source Step 1
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of a second circuit, given
below, as seen at terminals A and B.
Lets find the ratio of the voltage across the circuit, labeled v
Q
, to the
ratio of the current through the circuit, labeled i
Q
. This must be a constant.
We note that from Ohms Law applied to R
X
, we can say that
.
X Q X
v i R
Next, we apply KCL at
the A node to write that
3 .
X Q X
i i i
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
Note the change in
polarity for the source,
from the previous
example.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
2
nd
Simple Example with a
Dependent Source Step 2
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit
below, as seen at terminals A and B. On the last slide we
found v
Q
, and we found i
Q
. We take the ratio of them, and plug
in the expressions that we found for each. When we do this,
we get
Note that ratio has
changed when we
simply changed the
polarity of the
dependent source.
The magnitude is not
the only thing that
changed; the
equivalent resistance
is now negative!
100[ ]
50[ ].
3 2 2 2
X X X X X
X X X
Q
Q
i R i R
i i
R
v
i i
W
W

A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Simple Example with a Dependent
Source Step 2 (Note)
We wish to find the equivalent resistance of the circuit
below, as seen at terminals A and B. Lets find the ratio of the
voltage across the circuit, labeled v
Q
, to the ratio of the current
through the circuit, labeled i
Q
. We take the ratio of them, and
get
The dependent source is
in parallel with the
resistor R
X
. Since the
parallel combination is
-50[W], the dependent
source must be behaving
as if it were a -33.33[W]
resistor. This value
depends on R
X
; in fact, it
is -R
X
/3.
A
B
i
S
=
3 i
X
R
X
=
100[W]
i
X
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
Q
-
+
i
Q
100[ ]
50[ ].
3 2 2 2
X X X X X
X X X
Q
Q
i R i R
i i
R
v
i i
W
W

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Note 1
When we find the equivalent resistance for a Thvenins
equivalent or a Nortons equivalent, we set the independent
sources equal to zero, and find the equivalent resistance of
what remains.
We can see that the equivalent resistance can be
negative. This is one reason why we have been so careful
about polarities all along. We need to get the polarities right
to be able to get our signs right.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Note 2
When we find the equivalent resistance for a Thvenins equivalent or
a Nortons equivalent, we set the independent sources equal to zero, and
find the equivalent resistance of what remains.
In the simple examples that we just did, we were effectively applying a
source to the terminals of the circuit. This results in a circuit like others
that we have solved before, and we can find the ratio of voltage to current.
This is usually easier to think about for most students. It is as if we were
applying a source just to test the circuit; we call this method the Test-
Source Method.
v
TH
+
-
R
TH A
B
~
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources
A
B
A
B
~
i
N
R
N
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Defined
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Note 1
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
Dont forget this step. It is always applied
when finding equivalent resistance.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Note 2
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
Note that step 2 has two options (a or b).
Pick one. You dont need to do both.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Note 3
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
You could actually pick option b) every
time, but option a) is easier. Use it if you
can.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Note 4
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
When you apply these voltages and currents,
apply them in the active sign convention for the
source. This gives the proper sign.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Test-Source Method Note 5
To get the equivalent resistance of a circuit, as seen by two terminals of that
circuit, we follow these steps.
1) Set all independent sources equal to zero.
2) Find the equivalent resistance.
a) If there are no dependent sources, find this equivalent resistance using
the equivalent resistance rules that have been used before. These
include series combinations, parallel combinations, and delta-to-wye
equivalents.
b) If there are dependent sources present, apply a test source to the two
terminals. It can be either a voltage source or a current source.
1) If you apply a voltage source,
find the current through that
voltage source.
2) If you apply a current source,
find the voltage across that
current source.
3) Then, find the ratio of the voltage to the
current, which will be the
equivalent resistance.
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
dependent
sources
A
B
v
T
-
+
i
T
Test
Source
The active sign convention for the test source
gives the passive sign convention for the
circuit, which is the resistance, by Ohms Law.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Notes
1. The Test-Source Method usually requires some practice
before it becomes natural for students. It is important to work
several problems to get this practice in.
2. There is a tendency to assume that one could just ignore
the Test-Source Method, and just find the open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current whenever a dependent source is
present. However, sometimes this does not work. In
particular, when the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current are zero, we must use the Test-Source Method. Learn
how to use it.
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem
We wish to find the Thvenin equivalent of
the circuit below, as seen from terminals A and
B.
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 1
We wish to find the Thvenin equivalent of the circuit
below, as seen from terminals A and B.
We will start by find the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals, as defined below.

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
OC
+
-
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 2
To find v
OC
, we will first find v
D
, by writing KCL at the top
center node. We have
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
OC
+
-
1 3
5
0 0.
D D D
S
v v v
i
R R

Note that we recognize that the current through R
2
must be
zero since R
2
is in series with an open circuit.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 3
We can substitute in the value for i
S
, 25[mS]v
C
. We note
that since the current through R
2
is zero, the voltage across it
is zero, so v
C
is zero. So, we write

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
OC
+
-
1 3
1 3
5
0 25[mS] 0, or
5
0.
D D D
C
D D D
v v v
v
R R
v v v
R R

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 4
Next, we substitute in values and solve for v
D
. We write

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
OC
+
-
4
0. With some math, we find
2.2[k ] 10[k ]
0.
D D
D
v v
v

W W

Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 5
Now, we can take KVL around the loop, and we write

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
OC
+
-
0, and so
0.
D O
OC
C C
v v v
v

The Thvenin voltage is equal to this open-circuit voltage, so

the Thvenin voltage must be zero. The short-circuit current
will also be zero. To get the resistance, we need to use the
Test-Source
Method.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 6
We have applied a test current source to the two terminals. We have
also labeled a voltage across this current source, v
T
. This voltage has
been defined in the active sign convention for the current source. As
noted earlier, this will give us the passive sign convention for v
T
and i
T
for
the circuit that we are finding the equivalent resistance of. Thus, we will
have

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
.
T
E
T
Q
v
i
R
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 7
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
We have applied a test current source to the two terminals. We dont
need to do this, but doing so makes it clear that we are now just solving
another circuit, like the many that we have solved before. We have even
given the source a value, in this case, 1[A]. This is just a convenience.
Many people choose to leave this as an arbitrary source. We choose to
use a value, an easy value like 1[A], to allow us
to find an actual value for v
T
.

.
T
E
T
Q
v
i
R
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 8
We have applied a test current source to the two terminals. A test
voltage source would have been just as good. We chose a current
source because we thought it might make the solution a little easier, since
we can find v
C
so easily now. But it really does not matter. Dont worry
about which one to choose. Lets solve.

.
T
E
T
Q
v
i
R
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 9
Lets solve for v
T
. We note that we can write an expression for v
C

using Ohms Law, and get

2
1[A] 5600[V].
C
v R
This voltage may seem very large. Dont let this bother you.
We do not actually have this voltage; it is just for calculating
the resistance.
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 10
Next, lets write KCL for the top center node. We get


1 3
5
0, or by substituting,
4
1[A] 25[mS] 5600[V] 0.
2.2[k ] 10[k ]
D D D
S
D D
T
v v v
i
R R
v v
i

W W
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 11
Solving for v
D
yields


4
139[A], or
2.2[k ] 10[k ]
1.72[mS] 139[A], or
80, 900[V].
D D
D
D
v v
v
v

W W

R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 12
Taking KVL, we get


0, or
80, 900[V] 5600[V] 86, 500[V].
D C
D C
T
T
v v
v v
v
v


R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 13
So, we can find the equivalent resistance by finding

86, 500[V]
86.5[k ].
1[A]
T
T
EQ
R
v
i
W
R
1
=
2.2[kW]
R
3
=
10[kW]
R
2
=
5.6[kW]
A
B
+
v
S
=
5v
D
-
i
S
=
25[mS]v
C
v
C
+ -
v
D
+
-
v
T
+
-
i
T
=
1[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem Step 14
So, the Thvenin equivalent is given in the circuit below.
Note that the Thvenin voltage is zero, and so we dont even
show the voltage source at all. The Thvenin resistance is
shown, and in this case, it is the Thvenin equivalent.
R
EQ
=
86.5[kW]
A
B
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Is the Test-Source Method
Really That Important?
This is a good question. Basically, the answer
is yes. There are many cases where we have
dependent sources present, and wish to use a
Thvenin equivalent. While in some cases we
can get the Thvenin resistance from the
open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit
current, there are others where we cannot.
The Test-Source Method is also quicker in
some cases.
Some students go to great lengths to
avoid learning this method. This seems
like a waste of energy. Just learn it
and use it.
Go back to
Overview
slide.
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Example Problem #1
For the circuit given below, find the Norton equivalent
as seen by the current source.
Find the power delivered by the current source in this
circuit.
37[W] 30[W]
i
Q
+
-
10[V]
56[W]
32[W]
40[W]
125[W]i
Q
+
-
13[A]
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston
University of Houston
Sample Problem #2
3. a) Find the Norton equivalent as seen by the 22[kW] resistor.
b) Use this circuit to solve for i
Q
.

v
S1
=
100[V]
+
-
i
Q
R
2
=
33[kW]
i
S2
=
12[mA]
i
S1
=
10i
X
R
1
=
10[kW]
R
4
=
18[kW]
R
3
=
22[kW]
i
X
Soln: a) i
N
= -102[mA], R
N
= -1.228[kW]
b) -5.988[mA]