Ishikawa Seven Basic Tools

Sreenivas

sreenivas_brsl@yahoo.com
 Seven Quality Tools
• The Seven Tools
– Histograms, Pareto Charts, Cause and
Effect Diagrams, Run Charts, Scatter
Diagrams, Flow Charts, Control Charts
 Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
• Kaoru Ishikawa developed seven basic visual
tools of quality so that the average person
could analyze and interpret data.

• These tools have been used worldwide by

companies, managers of all levels and
employees.
 Histograms
Slide 1 of 3

• Histogram Defined
– A histogram is a bar graph that shows
frequency data.
– Histograms provide the easiest way to
evaluate the distribution of data.
 Histograms
Slide 2 of 3
• Creating a Histogram
– Collect data and sort it into categories.
– Then label the data as the independent set or the
dependent set.
• The characteristic you grouped the data by would be the
independent variable.
• The frequency of that set would be the dependent
variable.
– Each mark on either axis should be in equal
increments.
– For each category, find the related frequency and
make the horizontal marks to show that frequency.
 Histograms
Slide 3 of 3

• Examples of How Histograms Can Be

Used
– Histograms can be used to determine
distribution of sales.
– Say for instance a company wanted to
measure the revenues of other companies
and wanted to compare numbers.
 When to Use a Histogram
• When the data are numerical.
• When you want to see the shape of the data’s distribution,
especially when determining whether the output of a process is
distributed approximately normally.
• When analyzing whether a process can meet the customer’s
requirements.
• When analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks
like.
• When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one
time period to another.
• When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes
are different.
• When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly
and easily to others.
 Summary

• The histogram is a graphic representation of

frequency counts of a sample or a population.
• The X-axis lists the unit intervals of a parameter
(e.g., severity level of software defects) ranked
in ascending order from left to right, and the Y-
axis contains the frequency counts
• The purpose of the histogram is to show the
distribution characteristics of a parameter
• It enhances understanding of the parameter of
interest.
 Check List (Sheet)
Also called: defect concentration diagram
Definition:
A check sheet is a structured, prepared form
for collecting and analyzing data. This is a
generic tool that can be adapted for a wide
variety of purposes.
• Check sheets help organize data by category.
• Check sheets show how many times each
particular value occurs, and their information is
increasingly helpful as more data are collected.
• More than 50 observations should be available to be
charted for this tool to be really useful.
• Check sheets minimize clerical work since the operator
merely adds a mark to the tally on the prepared sheet
rather than writing out a figure (Figure in next slide).
• By showing the frequency of a particular defect (e.g.,
in a molded part) and how often it occurs in a specific
location, check sheets help operators spot problems.
• The check sheet example shows a list of molded part
defects on a production line covering a week's time.
One can easily see where to set priorities based on
results shown on this check sheet.
• Assuming the production flow is the same on each day,
the part with the largest number of defects carries the
highest priority for correction.
Because it clearly organizes data, a check sheet is the
easiest way to track information.
When to Use a Check Sheet

• When data can be observed and collected

repeatedly by the same person or at the same
location.
• When collecting data on the frequency or
patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, etc.
• When collecting data from a production
process.
 Check Sheet Procedure
• Decide what event or problem will be observed. Develop
operational definitions.
• Decide when data will be collected and for how long.
• Design the form. Set it up so that data can be recorded
simply by making check marks or Xs or similar symbols
and so that data do not have to be recopied for analysis.
• Label all spaces on the form.
• Test the check sheet for a short trial period to be sure it
collects the appropriate data and is easy to use.
• Each time the targeted event or problem occurs, record
data on the check sheet.
 Check Sheet Example
The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephone
interruptions. The tick marks were added as data was collected over
several weeks.
Phases of Software Development Process in a
company
The software development process consists of multiple phases:
1. Requirements (RQ),
2. System architecture (SD),
3. High-level design (HLD),
4. Low-level design (LLD),
5. Code development (CODE),
6. Unit tests (UT),
7. Integration and building (I/B),
8. Component tests (CT),
9. System tests (ST), and
10. early customer programs (EP).
Each phase has a set of tasks to complete and the phases with
formal hand-off have entry and exit criteria.
 Check list in Software Process
• Checklists help developers and programmers ensure that all
tasks are complete and that the important factors or
quality characteristics of each task are covered
• Examples of checklists are
– design review checklist,
– code inspection checklist,
– moderator (for design review and code inspection)
checklist,
– pre-code-integration (into the system library) checklist,
– entrance and exit criteria for system tests, and
– product readiness checklist.
• Checklists are often a part of the process documents.
 Create a Check Sheet

Track up to 10 defects on each day of

the week.
 Summary

• A check sheet is a paper form with printed items to

be checked.

• Its main purposes is to facilitate gathering data and

to arrange data while collecting it so the data can
be easily used later.
 Pareto chart
Also called: Pareto diagram, Pareto analysis

Definition:
A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of
the bars represent frequency or cost (time or
money), and are arranged with longest bars on
the left and the shortest to the right. In this
way the chart visually depicts which
situations are more significant.
• The Pareto diagram is named after Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th-century Italian
economist who postulated that a large share of wealth is owned by a small
percentage of the population.
• This basic principle translates well into quality problems—most quality
problems result from a small number of causes.
• Quality experts often refer to the principle as the 80-20 rule; that is, 80%
of problems are caused by 20% of the potential sources.
• A Pareto diagram puts data in a hierarchical order (Figure in next slide),
which allows the most significant problems to be corrected first.
• The Pareto analysis technique is used primarily to identify and evaluate
nonconformities, although it can summarize all types of data.
• It is perhaps the diagram most often used in management presentations.
• To create a Pareto diagram, the operator collects random data, regroups
the categories in order of frequency, and creates a bar graph based on the
results.
By rearranging random data, a Pareto diagram identifies and ranks
nonconformities in the quality process in descending order.
 Pareto Charts
Slide 1 of 4

• Pareto Chart Defined

– Pareto charts are used to identify and prioritize
problems to be solved.
– They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20
rule adapted by Joseph Juran.
• Remember the 80/20 rule states that approximately
80% of the problems are created by approximately 20%
of the causes.
 Pareto Charts
Slide 2 of 4

• Constructing a Pareto Chart

– First, information must be selected based
on types or classifications of defects that
occur as a result of a process.
– The data must be collected and classified
into categories.
– Then a histogram or frequency chart is
constructed showing the number of
occurrences.
 When to use a Pareto Chart
Slide 3 of 4

• When analyzing data about the frequency of

problems or causes in a process.
• When there are many problems or causes and
you want to focus on the most significant.
• When analyzing broad causes by looking at
their specific components.
• When communicating with others about your
data.
Pareto Charts
Slide 4 of 4
 Pareto Chart Examples
Example #1 shows how many customer complaints were received in each of five categories.

If all complaints cause equal distress to the customer, working on

eliminating document-related complaints would have the most impact,
and of those, working on quality certificates should be most fruitful.
Example #2 takes the largest category, “documents,” from Example #1,
breaks it down into six categories of document-related complaints, and
shows cumulative values.
 Pareto Chart in Software Process
• Pareto analysis helps by identifying areas that cause
most of the problems
• Pareto analysis of software defects by category for
four Hewlett-Packard software projects.
• The top three types
– new function or different processing required,
– existing data need to be organized/ presented differently,
and
– user needs additional data fields) account for more than one-
third of the defects.
– By focusing on these prevalent defect types, determining
probable causes, and instituting process improvements,
Hewlett-Packard was able to achieve significant quality
improvements.
Figure shows an example of a Pareto analysis of the causes
of defects for a product
 Summary
• A Pareto diagram is a frequency chart of bars in descending
order
• In software development, the X-axis for a Pareto diagram is
usually the defect cause and the Y-axis the defect count
• By arranging the causes based on defect frequency, a Pareto
diagram can identify the few causes that account for the
majority of defects
• It indicates which problems should be solved first in eliminating
defects and improving the operation.
• Pareto analysis is commonly referred to as the 80–20 principle
(20% of the causes account for 80% of the defects), although the
cause-defect relationship is not always in an 80–20 distribution.
 Scatter Diagram
Also called: scatter plot, X–Y graph

Definition:
• The scatter diagram graphs pairs of
numerical data, with one variable on each
axis, to look for a relationship between
them. If the variables are correlated, the
points will fall along a line or curve.
• The better the correlation, the tighter the
points will hug the line.
• A scatter diagram shows how two variables are
related and is thus used to test for cause and effect
relationships.
• It cannot prove that one variable causes the change
in the other, only that a relationship exists and how
strong it is.
• In a scatter diagram, the horizontal (x) axis
represents the measurement values of one variable,
and the vertical (y) axis represents the
measurements of the second variable.
• Figure in next slide shows part clearance values on
the x-axis and the corresponding quantitative
measurement values on the y-axis.
The plotted data points in a scatter diagram show the relationship
between two variables.
 Scatter Diagrams

• Scatter Diagrams Defined

– Scatter Diagrams are used to study and
identify the possible relationship between
the changes observed in two different sets
of variables.
 Scatter Diagrams

• Constructing a Scatter Diagram

– First, collect two pieces of data and create a
summary table of the data.
– Draw a diagram labeling the horizontal and
vertical axes.
• It is common that the “cause” variable be labeled on the X
axis and the “effect” variable be labeled on the Y axis.
– Plot the data pairs on the diagram.
– Interpret the scatter diagram for direction and
strength.
 Scatter Diagrams

• An Example of When a Scatter Diagram

Can Be Used
– A scatter diagram can be used to identify
the relationship between the production
speed of an operation and the number of
defective parts made.
When to Use a Scatter Diagram
• When you have paired numerical data.
• When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each
value of your independent variable.
• When trying to determine whether the two variables are related,
such as…
– When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.
– After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone
diagram, to determine objectively whether a particular cause
and effect are related.
– When determining whether two effects that appear to be
related both occur with the same cause.
– When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control
chart.
 Scatter Diagram in Software
• Compared to other tools, the scatter diagram is
more difficult to apply. It usually relates to
investigative work and requires precise data
• Scatter diagram usually illustrates the relationship
between complexity index and defect level
• Each data point represents a program module with
the X coordinate being its complexity index and the
Y coordinate its defect level
• Program complexity can be measured as soon as the
program is complete, whereas defects are
discovered over a long time, the positive correlation
between the two allows us to use program
complexity to predict defect level.
• We can reduce the program complexity when it is
developed (as measured by McCabe's index), thereby
reducing the chance for defects.
• Reducing complexity can also make programs easier
to maintain.
• Program modules with high-complexity indexes are
the targets for analysis and possible module
breakup, encapsulation, intramodule cleanup, and
other actions.
• Low-complexity indexes coupled with high defects
are clear indications of modules that are poorly
designed or implemented and should also be
scrutinized.
Scatter Diagram of Program Complexity and Defect Level
 Summary

• A scatter diagram vividly portrays the

relationship of two interval variables.

• Scatter diagrams aid data-based

decision making (e.g., if action is
planned on the X variable and some
effect is expected on the Y variable).
 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 1 of 4

• Cause and Effect Diagram Defined

– The cause and effect diagram is also called the Ishikawa diagram
or the fishbone diagram.
– It is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a particular
effect.
– The major purpose of this diagram is to act as a first step in
problem solving by creating a list of possible causes.
 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 2 of 4

• Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram

– First, clearly identify and define the problem or effect for which
the causes must be identified. Place the problem or effect at the
right or the head of the diagram.
– Identify all the broad areas of the problem.
– Write in all the detailed possible causes in each of the broad areas.
– Each cause identified should be looked upon for further more
specific causes.
– View the diagram and evaluate the main causes.
– Set goals and take action on the main causes.
 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 3 of 4

• An Example of When a Cause and Effect Diagram

Can Be Used
– This diagram can be used to detect the problem of
incorrect deliveries.
• Diagram on next slide
– Diagram obtained from:
<http://www.hci.com.au/hcisite/toolkit/causeand.htm>
– When a production team is about to launch a new
product, the factors that will affect the final product
must be recognized. The fishbone diagram can depict
problems before they have a chance to begin.
 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 4 of 4

Diagram of the Incorrect Deliveries Example:

When to Use a Fishbone Diagram
Also Called: Cause-and-Effect Diagram, Ishikawa Diagram

• When identifying possible causes for a

problem.
• Especially when a team’s thinking tends to
fall into ruts.
 Flow Charts
Slide 1 of 3

• Flow Charts Defined

– A flow chart is a pictorial representation
showing all of the steps of a process.
 Flow Charts
Slide 2 of 3

• Creating a Flow Chart

– First, familiarize the participants with the flow chart
symbols.
– Draw the process flow chart and fill it out in detail
about each element.
– Analyze the flow chart. Determine which steps add
value and which don’t in the process of simplifying the
work.
 Flow Charts
Slide 3 of 3

• Examples of When to Use a Flow Chart

– Two separate stages of a process flow chart
should be considered:
• The making of the product
• The finished product
 Run Charts
Slide 1 of 3

• Run Charts Defined

– Run charts are used to analyze processes
according to time or order.
 Run Charts
Slide 2 of 3

• Creating a Run Chart

– Gathering Data
• Some type of process or operation must be available to take measurements for
analysis.
– Organizing Data
• Data must be divided into two sets of values X and Y. X values represent time
and values of Y represent the measurements taken from the manufacturing
process or operation.
– Charting Data
• Plot the Y values versus the X values.
– Interpreting Data
• Interpret the data and draw any conclusions that will be beneficial to the process
or operation.
 Run Charts
Slide 3 of 3

• An Example of Using a Run Chart

– An organization’s desire is to have their product arrive
to their customers on time, but they have noticed that it
doesn’t take the same amount of time each day of the
week. They decided to monitor the amount of time it
takes to deliver their product over the next few weeks.
 Control Charts
Slide 1 of 3

• Control Charts Defined

– Control charts are used to determine whether a
process will produce a product or service with
consistent measurable properties.
 Control Charts
Slide 2 of 3

• Steps Used in Developing Process Control Charts

– Identify critical operations in the process where
inspection might be needed.
– Identify critical product characteristics.
– Determine whether the critical product characteristic is
a variable or an attribute.
– Select the appropriate process control chart.
– Establish the control limits and use the chart to monitor
and improve.
– Update the limits.
 Control Charts
Slide 3 of 3

• An Example of When to Use a Control

Chart
– Counting the number of defective products or
services
• Do you count the number of defects in a given
product or service?
• Is the number of units checked or tested constant?
 When to Use a Control Chart
• When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting
problems as they occur.
• When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.
• When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).
• When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes
(non-routine events) or common causes (built into the process).
• When determining whether your quality improvement project should
aim to prevent specific problems or to make fundamental changes to
the process.
 Activity
• Process Flow Chart for Finding the Best Way
Home
– Construct a process flow chart by making the best
decisions in finding the best route home.
– Refer to the prior notes on flowcharts.
• Remember: Define and analyze the process, build a step-by
step picture of the process, and define areas of improvement in
the process.
» Answer is on the next slide
» Example obtained from:
<http://deming.eng.clemson.edu/pub/tutorials/qctools/flow
m.htm#Example>
 Summary
This presentation provided learning material for each of Ishikawa’s
seven basic tools of quality.

Each tool was clearly defined with definitions, a step-by-step process

and an example of how the tool can be used.

As seen through the presentation, these tools are rather simple and
effective.
 Works - Cited
• Histograms and Bar Graphs.
<http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/lessons/sm3.html>
• Your MBA: The Business Study Reference Site.
http://yourmba.co.uk/pareto_diagram.htm
• Hci Home Services. Cause and Effect Diagram.
http://hci.com.au/hcisite/toolkit/causeand.htm
• Scatter Diagram. http://sytsma.com/tqmtools/Scat.html
• Flowchart.
<http://http://deming.eng.clemson.edu/pub/tutorials/qctools/flowm.htm>
• Run Charts/Time Plot/ Trend Chart.
<http://www.deming.edu.clemson.edu/pub/tutorials/qctools/runm.htm>
• Foster Thomas S. Managing Quality An Integrative Approach. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 2001