Chapter 4

Manual Assembly Lines

Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines
2. Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines
3. Line Balancing Algorithms
4. Other Considerations in Assembly Line
Design
5. Alternative Assembly Systems

Manual Assembly Lines

Work systems consisting of multiple workers
organized to produce a single product or a limited
range of products
Assembly workers perform tasks at workstations
located along the line-of-flow of the product
Usually a powered conveyor is used
Some of the workstations may be equipped with portable
powered tools.

Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:

High or medium demand for product

Products are similar or identical
Total work content can be divided into work elements
To automate assembly tasks is impossible

Why Assembly Lines are Productive

Specialization of labor
When a large job is divided into small tasks and each
task is assigned to one worker, the worker becomes
highly proficient at performing the single task (Learning
curve)

Interchangeable parts
Each component is manufactured to sufficiently close
tolerances that any part of a certain type can be selected
at random for assembly with its mating component.
Thanks to interchangeable parts, assemblies do not
need fitting of mating components

Some Definitions
Work flow
Each work unit should move steadily along the line

Line pacing
Workers must complete their tasks within a certain
cycle time, which will be the pace of the whole line

Examples
Automobile, camera, furniture, lamp, luggage, personal
computer, mobile phone, video game console

Manual Assembly Line

A production line that consists of a sequence of
workstations where assembly tasks are
performed by human workers
Products are assembled as they move along the
line
At each station a portion of the total work content is
performed on each unit

Base parts are launched onto the beginning of

the line at regular intervals (cycle time)
Workers add components to progressively build the
product

Manual Assembly Line

Configuration of an n-workstation manual assembly line

The production rate of an assembly line is determined by

its slowest station.
Assembly workstation: A designated location along the
work flow path at which one or more work elements are
performed by one or more workers

Two assembly operators

working on an engine
assembly line

Final inspection of a car

Manning level
There may be more than one worker per station.
Utility workers: are not assigned to specific
workstations.
They are responsible for
(1) helping workers who fall behind,
(2) relieving for workers for personal breaks,
(3) maintenance and repair

Manning level
Average manning level:

w
n

Practically, average manning level:

n

wu wi
i 1

where
M=average manning level of the line,
wu=number of utility workers assigned to the system,
n=number of workstations,
wi=number of workers assigned specifically to station
i for i=1,,n

Work Transport System

Manual method

Mechanized Methods

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

Manual methods
Work units are moved between stations by the
workers (by hand) without powered conveyor
Problems:
Starving of stations
The assembly operator has completed the assigned
task on the current work unit, but the next unit has not
yet arrived at the station

Blocking of stations
The operator has completed the assigned task on the
current work unit but cannot pass the unit to the
downstream station because that worker is not yet
ready to receive it.

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

To reduce starving,
use buffers

To prevent blocking,
provide space between upstream and downstream
stations.

But both solutions can result in higher WIP,

which is economically undesirable.

Work Transport Systems-Mechanized

Methods

Continuously moving conveyor: operates at constant velocity

1.

Work units are fixed to the conveyor

2.

Work units are removable from the conveyor

Work units are small and light

Workers are more flexible compared to synchronous lines, less flexible than asynchronous
lines

Synchronous transport (intermittent transport stop-and-go line): all work

units are moved simultaneously between stations.

Problem:

The product is large and heavy

Worker moves along with the product

Task must be completed within a certain time limit. Otherwise the line produces incomplete
units;
Excessive stress on the assembly worker.
Not common for manual lines (variability), but often ideal for automated production lines

Asynchronous transport : a work unit leaves a given station when the assigned
task is completed.

Work units move independently, rather than synchronously (most flexible one).
Variations in worker task times
Small queues in front of each station.

Coping with Product Variety

Single model assembly line (SMAL)
Every work unit is the same
Batch model assembly line (BMAL ) multiple model line
Two or more different products
Products are so different that they must be made in batches
with setup between batches
Mixed model assembly line (MMAL)
Two or more different models
Differences are slight so models can be made
simultaneously with no setup time (no need for batch
production)

Coping with Product Variety

Advantages of mixed models over batch order models
No production time is lost during changeovers
High inventories due to batch ordering are avoided
Production rates of different models can be adjusted as product
demand changes.

Disadvantages of mixed models over batch order models

Each station is equipped to perform variety of tasks (costly)
Scheduling and logistic activities are more difficult in this type of
lines.

Analysis of Single Model Lines

The formulas and the algorithms in this section are developed for single
model lines, but they can be extended to batch and mixed models.
The assembly line must be designed to achieve a production rate sufficient
to satisfy the demand.
Demand rate production rate cycle time
Annual demand Da must be reduced to an hourly production rate Rp

Da
Rp
Ow S w H sh
where
Da = annual demand
Rp = hourly production rate
Sw = number of shifts/week
Hsh = number of hours/shift
Ow = number of operation weeks

Analysis of Single Model Lines

Now our aim is to convert production rate, Rp, to cycle time, Tc.
One should take into account that some production time will be lost due to

equipment failures
power outages,
material unavailability,
quality problems,
labor problems.

Line efficiency (uptime proportion): only a certain proportion of the shift

time will be available.

Cycle time

Ideal cycle time

60
60E
Rc
T

c
where production rate, R , is converted to a cycle time, T , accounting
for
T
R
c
p
line efficiency, E.
p

Rc = Ideal cycle rate for the line (cycle/hr)

Analysis of Single Model Lines

Rc < Rp [Ideal cycle rate must be less than required production rate]

Rp

Tc

Line efficiency, Ec
Rc T p
No of worker,

WL
w
AT

Tp

= average production cycle time

=Tp = 60/ Rp

WL = workload in a given time period

AT = available time in the period

Workload to be
accomplished

WL R pTwc

Rp = production rate

Available time

AT 60 E

*60 minute

Twc = work content time

Work content time (Twc): The total time of all work elements that
must be performed to produce one unit of the work unit.

Analysis of Single Model Lines

The theoretical minimum number of stations that will be
required to on the line to produce one unit of the work unit, w*:

Twc
w = Minimum Integer
Tc
*

where
Twc = work content time, min;
Tc = cycle time, min/station
If we assume one worker per station then this gives the
minimum number of workers

Theoretical Minimum Not Possible..

Repositioning losses: Some time will be lost at each
station every cycle for repositioning the worker or the
work unit; thus, the workers will not have the entire Tc
each cycle
Line balancing problem (imperfect balancing): It is
not possible to divide the work content time evenly
among workers, and some workers will have an
amount of work that is less than Tc

Repositioning Losses
Repositioning losses occur on a production line
because some time is required each cycle to
reposition the worker, the work unit, or both
On a continous transport line, time is required for the
worker to walk from the unit just completed to the the
upstream unit entering the station
In conveyor systems, time is required to remove work
units from the conveyor and position it at the station for
worker to perform his task.

Repositioning Losses
Repositioning time = time available each
cycle for the worker to position = Tr
Service time = time available each cycle for
the worker to work on the product = Ts
Service time, Ts = Max{Tsi} Tc Tr

where Tsi= service time for station i, i=1,2,..,n

Ts Tc Tr
Repositioning efficiency Er = T T
c
c

Cycle Time on an Assembly Line

Components of cycle time at several stations on
a manual assembly line

Tsi=service time, Tr=repositioning time

Line Balancing Problem

Given:
The total work content consists of many distinct work
elements
The sequence in which the elements can be performed is
restricted
The line must operate at a specified cycle time (=service
time + repositioning time)
The Problem:
To assign the individual work elements to workstations so
that all workers have an equal amount of work to perform

Assumptions About Work Element Times

1. Element times are constant values

But in fact they are variable

2. Work element times are additive

The time to perform two/more work elements in

sequence is the sum of the individual element times

Additivity assumption can be violated (due to

motion economies)

Work Element Times

Total work content time Twc
Twc =

ne

Tek
k 1

where Tek = work element time for element k

Work elements are assigned to station i that add up to the
service time for that station
Tsi =

Tek

ki
The station service
times must add up to the total work
content time

Twc =

Tsi
i 1

Constraints of Line Balancing Problem

Different work elements require different times.
When elements are grouped into logical tasks and assigned to
workers, the station service times, Tsi, are likely not to be equal.
Simply because of the variation among work element times, some
workers will be assigned more work.
Thus, variations among work elements make it difficult to obtain
equal service times for all stations.

Precedence Constraints
Some elements must be done before the others.
Restrictions on the order in which work elements can
be performed
Can be represented graphically (precedence diagram)

Example:

Grommet : sealant like ring

Example:

Example: A problem for line balancing

Given: The previous precedence diagram and the standard
times. Annual demand=100,000 units/year. The line will operate
50 wk/yr, 5 shifts/wk, 7.5 hr/shift. Uptime efficiency=96%.
Repositioning time lost=0.08 min.
Determine
(a) total work content time,
(b) required hourly production rate to achieve the annual
demand,
(c) cycle time,
(d) theoretical minimum number of workers required on the line,
(e) service time to which the line must be balanced.

Example: Solution
(a) The total work content time is the sum of the work
ne
element times given in the table
Twc Tek
Twc=4.0 min
k 1
(b) The hourly production rate
Da
100,000
R

Rp
53.33 units/hr
p
50S w H sh
50(5)(7.5)
(c) The corresponding cycle time with an uptime
efficiency of 96%
60(0.96)
Tc
1.08 min
53.33

Tc

60E
Rp

(d) The minimum number of workers:

Twc
w
*

w* = (Minimum Integer 4.0 /1.08=3.7)=4 workers

Tc
(e) The available service time
Ts Tc Tr
Ts=1.08-0.08=1.00 min

Measures of Balance Efficiency

It is almost imposible to obtain a perfect line balance
Line balance efficiency, Eb:
Eb =

Twc
wTs

Perfect line: Eb = 1

Balance delay, d:
d=

wTs Twc
wTs

Perfect line: d = 0

Note that Eb + d = 1 (they are complement of each other)

Overall Efficiency
Factors that reduce the productivity of a manual
line
Line efficiency (Availability), E,
Repositioning efficiency (repositioning), Er,
Balance efficiency (balancing), Eb,
60 E
T
T T T
Tc
Er s c r
Eb wc
Rp
Tc
Tc
wTs
E Er Eb
Overall Labor efficiency on the assembly line =

Line Balancing Algorithms Heuristics

1. Largest candidate rule
2. Kilbridge and Wester method
3. Ranked positional weights method, also known
as the Helgeson and Birne method

In the following descriptions, assume one worker

per workstation

Largest Candidate Rule

1. List all work elements in descending order based on their
Tek values; then,
2. Start at the top of the list and selecting the first element
that satisfies precedence requirements and does not
cause the total sum of Tek to exceed the allowable Ts
value
3. When an element is assigned, start back at the top of the
list and repeat selection process
4. When no more elements can be assigned to the current
station, proceed to next station
5. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all elements have been
assigned to as many stations as needed

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Example:
Balance efficicency
Twc
4.0
Eb

0.80
wTs 5(1.0)

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Physical layout of workstations and assignment
of elements to stations using the largest
candidate rule

Ranked Positional Weights Method

A ranked position weight (RPW) is calculated for each
work element
RPW for element k is calculated by summing the Te
values for all of the elements that follow element k in the
diagram plus Tek itself
Work elements are then organized into a list according to
their RPW values, starting with the element that has the
highest RPW value
Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the largest
candidate rule

Solution for Ranked Positional Weights

Method

Example:

Other Considerations in Line Design

Methods analysis
To analyze
workstations

methods

at

bottleneck

or

other

troublesome

improved motions,
better workplace layout,
special tools to facilitate manual work elements
product design

Utility workers
To relieve congestion at stations that are temporarily overloaded

Preassembly of components
Prepare certain subassemblies off-line to reduce work content time
on the final assembly line

Other Considerations - continued

Storage buffers between stations
To permit continued operation of certain sections of the line
when other sections break down
To smooth production between stations with large task time
variations

Parallel stations
To reduce time at bottleneck stations that have unusually long
task times

Worker (Labor) Shifting with crosstraining

Temporary (or periodic) relocation to expedite or to reduce
subassembly stocks

Most Follower Rule

3
1
8

Item i

8
5

4
3

4
6

10

10

7
4

16/19
19

10

19/19
19

5
2

Most Follower

15/19
19

10/19
19

End of Lecture