Deterioration

Structures

of

Concrete

Causes And Preventive Measures: An Overview

Mr. Anilkumar P M and Dr. J Sudhakumar

B.Tech Student and Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Calicut

INTRODUCTION

The realization that something is wrong must come

before it is too late to make a repair.

example a common defect like corrosion of steel can

be difficult to detect, because it occurs in the most in
accessible part of the structure.

Proper studies and investigations should be

conducted and select a suitable repair procedure .

There are three basic visual symptoms of distress

in concrete structures:
Cracking
spalling and
disintegration.

In a given structure, the three basic indicators of

distress may occur not only in combination, but
with this several forms of each symptom being
manifest simultaneously.

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Occurrences incident to construction operations

Drying shrinkage
Temperature stresses
Absorption of moisture by the concrete
Corrosion reinforcement
Weathering
Shock waves
Erosion (Abrasion)
Poor design details
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Occurrences incident to
construction operations

The important factors to be considered

Quality of the construction material,
Proper methodology,
Trained manpower and
Advanced machine power
Improper procedure or carelessness during any
phase of the construction may results in concrete
of inferior quality.

Factors to be considered are

1. Localized settlement of the subgrade
2. Movement of the formwork
3. Vibrations
4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension
5. Setting shrinkage
6. Premature removal of shores

 Localized

settlement of the subgrade

If there are local soft pockets in the subgrade on

which the concrete is placed or if there are any air
pockets.
There will be a localized settlement of the concrete
due the weight of the plastic mass.
This should be prevented by giving proper
attention to compacting and draining the subgrade.
Also cracks of this type can be closed when
finishing the concrete surface.

Movement

of the formwork

Any movement of the form work which occurs between

the time that the concrete begins to lose its fluidity and
time that it has fully set will cause cracks in the
structure.

These cracks may be internal and invisible by the

surface inspection.

They form a water pocket in the concrete mass, which,

upon freezing, will spall the concrete surface.

Also, corrosion of reinforcement can result from such

water pockets.

 Vibrations

Cracking of concrete due to vibrations during

the set is a common occurrence.
The source may be
passing traffic,
pile driving,
blasting,
delayed vibratory compaction,
accidental impact of equipment etc.

Internal settlement of concrete suspension

Fluid concrete, before attaining initial set, is subject

to settlement of the heavier particle through the
fluid matrix
Such settlement will be prevented by the presence
of reinforcement, which is supported in place
Surface cracks can be closed by delayed finishing
The use of dense, plastic with proper vibration mix
is recommended.

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 Setting

shrinkage

Volume changes during the initial setting of

concrete tend to cause the formation of shallow
surface cracks.
These surface cracks have the appearance of
alligator scale.
Preventive measures are same as those described
for surface cracks

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 Premature

removal of shores

With the need for speed and economy, there is a

tendency to remove the shores or the forms before
the concrete has attained sufficient strength.

When this occurs, the concrete often cracks,

sometimes severely.

The solution is to leave the shores and forms in

place until the concrete is strong enough.
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Drying shrinkage

The chemical reactions incident to the hardening

of concrete occur over an extended period of time
and involve a decrease in volume, known as
drying shrinkage.
If the structure is restrained against these volume
changes, stresses are created which may cause
cracking of concrete mass.
The common preventive measures
Frequent use of construction and contraction

joints,
providing an adequate amount of reinforcement to
distribute and reduce the size of cracks.
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Temperature stresses

Temperature
stresses

Variation in
atmospheric
temperature
Variation in internal
temperature

Variation in temperature of a hardened concrete mass will

results in changes in shape and volume of that mass
If the free occurrence of such changes is prevented by
restraint of the structure, stresses are created
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Example of a slab
l
GL

l
1

GL
f

l
2

GL

l3
GL

Concrete slab on ground,

which has been
cast during the summer
During winter, the
atmospheric temperature and
temperature of the slab will
drop and it will tend to
decrease the length of the slab
The decrease in length is
resisted by friction between
the slab and ground, l 2~ l
The decrease in length is not
resisted by friction between
the slab and ground, l3 < l

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A second case is that involving a thermal gradient

Third case is that involving dissimilar materials such
as a new concrete surfacing on an old concrete
structure.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of the two
materials may not be the same, and even a uniform
change in temperature will create warping of the
section and may cause a severe stress condition.
Effective preventive measures
provide joints to relieve the restraints in the structure

and
providing reinforcement to distribute the stresses.
Insulation technique is an alternative method
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The use of aggregates having coefficient of

thermal expansion markedly different from the
average value for concrete, will also result in
variation of int. temp

Preventive measure is same as that described

for drying shrinkage,

With added requirement that the possible

occurrence of aggregates having incomplete
coefficients of thermal expansion must be
considered
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Absorption of moisture by the concrete

Concrete is porous, in varying degrees.

It may be frequently observed that in different

parts of the structure, of the same materials, by
the same contractor, to the same specifications;
one part will be severely deteriorated and others
will be sound.

Due to difference in exposure and difference in

porosity resulting from various workmanship.
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When water freezes in the pores of the materials such

as bricks, stones and concrete, stresses are produced
this may cause spalling of concrete.

Moisture creates an environment for fungal growth

and other chemical reactions.

Water enters buildings by bulk transport, by

capillarity, by piggybacking with infiltrating air, and
by vapor diffusion.
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"Bulk" water: rain, runoff, and winddriven water

2. Capillary water
3. Air-transported moisture
4. Vapor diffusion
1.

http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/energysolutions/four-ways-water-gets-buildings

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As the moisture content of the concrete

increases, it swells
This expansion ranges from 0.01% for good
concrete to 0.5% for poor concrete
The amount of expansion will depends on
The age,
Porosity,
Type of aggregate and
The initial moisture content.
If the swelling is prevented, cracks and
spalling occur.
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Generally, it is impractical to prevent swelling due

to increased moisture content.
The solution is either to allow for expansion of the
concrete in structure subjected to alternate wetting
and drying;
or to keep the concrete continually wet by keeping
it in something like a heavy timber jacket, which
will prevent drying of the underlying mass

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Corrosion reinforcement

If the reinforcement is exposed to circulating air

and water, it will corrode.
Generally corrosion can be classified into two
categories
1. Corrosion due to chemical agents
2. Corrosion by electrolytic attack

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Except for mass gravity type structure, concrete

construction contains steel reinforcement. The
reinforcement is placed within a few centimeters of
the surface.

If the reinforcement is exposed to circulating air and

water, it will corrode.

The volume of the oxide produced by corrosion is

about 8 times that of the parent metal,

and the result is that the concrete cover is cracked and

spalled.
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In order to prevent the corrosion the steel must be

kept away from contact with circulating water.
This can be achieved by incasing the bars in a
dense concrete and providing adequate cover as
per codes.
Avoid details in the design which would promote
ponding of water.
Normal corrosion is an electrochemical
phenomenon

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For this type of Electrochemical corrosion to occur, the

following components must be present :
A metal anode
A metal cathode
A metallic conductor between the anode and cathode
An electrolyte in contact with the anode and cathode

Consider the corrosion of iron or steel.

Following are the reactions that occur at the anode and
cathode:
The metal Fe at the anodic area is ionized into ferrous
ions, releasing the electrons

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 Fe

Fe

2+

2 e-

These electrons are consumed at the cathodic

area, where they combine with oxygen and water
to form hydroxyl ions.
O2 + 2 H2 O + 4 e-

4(OH) Fe++ + 4 (OH)Fe (OH)2

4 Fe (OH)2 + O2 + 2H2 O
4Fe(OH)3
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Weathering

To some extent, all concrete is porous and will absorb

moisture.
Having absorbed moisture, if exposed to freezing
temperatures, the moisture will freeze and expand.
The resulting hydraulic pressure will tend to cause the
concrete to crack

The best preventive measures are

minimize the porosity by the use of dense, sound concrete.
The use of air entrainment
Insulating the concrete against freezing is another
technique.

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The type of aggregate seems to have some influence

on the weathering resistance.

Angular aggregates appear to behave better than

rounded aggregates; especially in marine
environments.

This may be due to the fact that rounded particles

have the least specific surface and therefore the
poorest bond.

Also, rounded particle are more easily dislodged

from the concrete matrix
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Shock waves

Concrete is susceptible to spalling when subject to

shock waves.
This is due to the different transmission rates at
which the waves pass through different materials,
such as aggregates, the matrix and the
reinforcement.
Use of heavily reinforced sections, use of concrete
section made with angular coarse aggregates are
the preventive measures.
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Erosion (Abrasion)

According to ACI committee 201 concrete subjected

to abrasion should have at least 28MPa compressive
strength
In general hardened paste possesses low resistance
to abrasion.
In order to develop high abrasion resistant concrete,
it is desirable to use hard surface material,
aggregate, and paste having low porosity and high
strength
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Abrasion of floor slabs can be reduced by

The use of high strength concrete;
Smooth and dense surface:
Air entrainment;
Proper Curing;
Delayed finishing etc.

In addition, an abrasion resistant topping is useful

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Poor design details

Restrained corners:
This detail creates a condition of stress concentration
under the reinforcing bars.
This can be improved by distributing the lateral
restraining force required to produce the changes in
direction of the bar tensions.

Abrupt changes in the section:

This causes stress concentrations which may result in
cracking.
Such a condition is common in increased steel framing
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Rigid joints between precast slab units:

Precast slab units are commonly designed for
conditions of simple support.
The rotations of the ends of the slab will cause
cracking at the juncture between the precast slabs
and the cat-in place fill
For roofs, leakage may occur.

Deflections:
Usual criteria for allowable live load deflection vary
from (1/240) to (1/360) of the span

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Leakage through joints:

Where joints are necessary, they must be detailed so

that the water will have to follow a long and

torturous path to penetrate.
They must be sealed, and water stops should be
provided if feasible.

In adequate drainage:
The construction must not pond water.
Horizontal surfaces should be pitched to drain, and

large and frequent weep holes must be provided in

depressed sections or low spots.
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Incompatibility of materials and sections:

Compactible sections:
Massive concrete should abutted by and tied

to thin sections just do not work together.

Unless adequately reinforced, cracking will
develop.
Flanged concrete girder with the presence of
heavy reinforcement in the flanges tends to
resist the shrinkage deformations;
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 where as in the lightly reinforced webs; these

deformations are not so resisted. Hence web cracking

taking place.
This can be corrected by providing longitudinal
reinforcement of 0.5% or more in the web.

Compactible materials:
In concrete lamination of mass as a result of excessive

vibrations or wet mixes takes place.

Concrete is not always uniform,
water and fine materials tend to rise and collect at the
top
This laminated concrete tends to delaminate as a result
of thermal changes or change in moisture content.
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Conclusion

Causes of defects in concrete can be grouped into

three categories namely mechanical, chemical and
physical.

mechanical category
Impact,
Overload,
Movement (settlement),
Explosion,
Vibration,
Seismic effects
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Chemical category
Problem related with aggressive agents

(sulphates, soft water, acids, and salts),

Biological activities.

Physical category
Problem with freeze / thaw
Thermal (Fire)
Salt crystallization
Shrinkage
Erosion and
Wear
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For the proper study on deterioration, an

experienced inspection to the present condition of
the structure and a detailed study on possibilities of
defects should be done
Special attention should also be given the structural
and non-structural elements
Main reasons for deterioration may include
material defects,
defects with structural and non-structural
elements,
improper
design
considerations
and
environmental effects
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Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better
-Albert Einstein

THANK YOU
Contact: anilkumar_bce11@nitc.ac.in
skumar@nitc.ac.in
Department of Civil Engineering. National Institute of
Technology, Calicut
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