Fundamentals Of Fiber Optics

20-10-2003

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Communication Basics

TRANSMITTER

MEDIUM

RECEIVER

Input to the transmitter is the information signal. Transmitter modifies this

signal into a suitable form so as to send along the medium to the distant end.
Receiver receives the signal from the medium and converts it to suitable
form for further application.
Medium can be of different types like copper cable, radio wave or Optical
Fiber Cable.

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Communication Media
Communication Media

Guided
e.g.Twisted Pair Wire,
Co-axial Cable (Copper),
Fiber Optic Cable.

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Unguided
e.g.Atmosphere
(Wire Less)

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Optical Fiber
Link

Light is guided through fiber.

TRANSMITTER

DRIVER

RECIEVER

LASER
SOURCE

FIBER LINK

DETECTOR

MEDIUM FOR CARRYING LIGHT

Converts elec. signal to light signal.

Driver modifies the information into a
suitable form for conversion into light

Detector accepts light

and converts it back to
elec. signal.

Source is LED or laser diode which

does the actual conversion.
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Optical Spectrum

IR

UV

Visible
850 nm
Light
980 nm
1310 nm
Ultraviolet (UV)
1480 nm
Visible
1550 nm
Infrared (IR)

Communication
wavelengths

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850, 1310, 1550 nm

Low-loss wavelengths

1625 nm

c = x

(nanometers)
Frequency: (tera hertz)

Wavelength:

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Advantages Of Optical
Fiber

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Very large information carrying capacity (band

width) of the order of several GHz.
Low loss :- Information can be sent over a
large distance. Unlike other medium the
attenuation is flat in optical fiber i.e. independent
of information frequency.
Fibers are immune to ELECTRO MAGNETIC
interference.
Small size and light weight.
Greater safety Fiber is made of dielectric
material which do not conduct electricity .It
cannot cause fire or explosions.It is not prone
to lightning.
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Applications of Optical
Fiber

Telecommunication Trunk Network

Subscriber Loop
CATV
Control Systems
Local Area Network

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Light Propagation

Light travels with different velocities in different media. The speed of light
changes when it travels from one material to another.
Also the direction of propagation changes.
This deflection is called refraction.

Index of refraction (refractive index) of a material denoted by n is the ratio

of the velocity of light c in free space to the velocity of light in that material v.
i.e. n =c/v
(e.g.- Refractive Index Of Glass ~ 1.5 )

A small portion of light always reflect back when it passes from one material to another.

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Snells
Law

A1
n1

n 1 > n2

A2
n2
2

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As A1 increases A2 also increases. At

a value of A1=A called critical angle
,A2 becomes 900 i.e. No light enters
material 2

n1sinA1 = n2sinA2
At any angle of incidence greater than A all
light will be reflected back to material 1.

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Propagation Of Light In Fiber

When a ray of light is incident at an angle greater than

the critical angle, it gets completely reflected back to
the same material.
This is called TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Communication Through Fiber Uses This Principle.

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Fiber Geometry

An optical fiber is made of three

sections:

Core

Cladding

The core carries the light signals

The cladding keeps the light in the
core
The coating protects the glass

Coating

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Fiber
Dimensions

Fiber dimensions are measured in m

1 m = 0.000001 meters (10-6)
1 human hair ~ 50 m

Refractive Index (n)

n = c/v
n ~ 1.467
n (core) > n (cladding)

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Coating
(245
250 m)

Cladding
(125 m)

Core
(8 62.5 m)

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Attenuation

It is a major factor considered in the designing of

any transmission system.
In fiber optics, attenuation is one factor which
determines the power loss.

Note: Power Loss is calculated in dB/km

(decibels/kilometer).

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Glass Purity
Breakthrough
Fiber Optics Requires Very High Purity Glass

Window Glass

1 inch (~3 cm)

Optical Quality Glass

10 feet (~3 m)

Fiber Optics

9 miles (~14 km)

For Ordinary Glass propagation distance will reduce the

transmitted Light Power by 50% (i.e. 3 dB)

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Graph of Loss in dB/Km versus Wavelength

6
Attenuation varies with the wave length of light.
The fiber exhibits minimum attenuation at wavelength slots
850nm, 1310nm, and 1550nm . These are called first window,
second window and third window.

Loss in db/km

5
4
3
2
1
0
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800

850

1000
Wave length

1310

1550 1600
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Wavelength and Attenuation Range

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Wave length

Attenuation range

850nm

2 to 2.5 dB/km

1310nm

0.4 to 0.5 dB/km

1550nm

0.25 to 0.3 dB/km

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Sources of Losses in
Fibers

(1) Absorption

(2) Scattering

(3) Geometric Effects

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(1)
Absorption

Intrinsic Absorption:
It is a natural property of glass - even purest
glass absorbs energy in selected wavelength
regions near to Ultra Violet region.

Absorption Due to Impurities:

Due to the presence of impurities like metal
ions and hydroxyl ions light energy is absorbed.
_

The peak of OH ion absorption occurs at

approx.1400nm wave length range.

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(2)
Scattering

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Loss of optical energy due to imperfections

in the fiber (localized density variations).
At imperfections light scatters in different
directions and thus energy is lost . This is
known as Rayleigh Scattering.
It is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of wave length.

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(3) Geometric
Effects

Micro bending
Deformation of fiber axis (axial
distortion) during cabling causes light
to couple out of the fiber.

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Macro bending
Loss due to excessive bending.
Fiber Bending radius = 3 mm (apprx)

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Classification Of
Fibers

A. Material Classification

B. Mode Classification

C. Refractive Index Classification

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A. Material
Classification

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Glass Core And Glass Cladding (Most Widely

Used)

Glass Core And Plastic Cladding

Plastic Core And Plastic Cladding- (Inexpensive

, But Support Very Low Band Widths)

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B. Mode Classification

Multimode fiber

n2

Core diameter varies

50 micro-m for step index
n1
62.5 micro-m for graded
index
Primarily used for intra-office
applications.
Not less expensive than single
mode.

Single-mode fiber
Core diameter is about 9
micro-m
Only one mode (ray)
propagates.
Bit rate - distance product
>100 THz-km

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Cladding

Core

n2

Cladding

n1

Core

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C. Refractive Index
Classification

Step Index fiber (SI Fiber)

Graded Index fiber (GRIN Fiber)

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Step Index & Graded Index

Fiber
:
1. Step Index
Core Has Uniform
Refractive
Index. A Sharp Step In
Graded
Index

Core And Cladding Junction.

2.
Ref. Index Of Core Is Not Uniform. Rather
Gradually Decreases Radially Outwards

(n1 to n2)

n1
n2

n2

50-100 m

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n1

Refractive index profile

n

n2

n2

50-100 m

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Characteristics of Optical
Fiber
A. Numerical Aperture

B. Dispersion

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A. Numerical
Aperture
It is the light gathering ability of a fiber. A fiber with large NA accepts and propagates
light well. A fiber with low NA requires highly directional light beam.

Mathematically Numerical Aperture NA =

n 12 - n 22

Light acceptance cone

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B. Dispersion

The spreading of light pulse as they travel through

the entire length of the fiber.

Dispersion limits the bandwidth.

Dispersion increases in direct proportion to the square

root of fiber length.

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What Is
Dispersion?
Dispersion is the spreading or broadening of light pulses as they
propagate through the fiber.
Too much dispersion gives rise to bit-errors at the receiver (i.e., the
inability to distinguish a 0 from a 1).

1 0 1

1 ? 1
Not recognizable

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Classes of
Dispersion

A. Modal Dispersion
Dispersion caused due to different paths the light
rays take to travel from one end to the other. This is
prominent in Multi Mode Fibers.
B. Chromatic Dispersion
Dispersion caused due to the variation in
velocities of different wave length components
of the transmitted light w.r.t the refractive index of
the material.

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Types Of Dispersion
Visualized
MMF (Step Index)

Optical Paths
Modal

Wavelengths

1
2

SMF

Difference
Differencein
in
arrival
arrivaltimes
times

Chromatic
The difference in arrival times of the different components, would cause
the broadening of the signal at the receiving end, the result being
dispersion.

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RELIANCE Single Mode Stepped Index

Fiber
n1

n2

n2
n

n
n
n2
n1

CLADDING

CORE
5-10 m
125 m

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n1 > n 2 > n
n1 Varying refractive index of core
n2 refractive index of cladding
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Types Of Single Mode

Fiber

SMF : G.652 (standard, 1310 nm

optimized, unshifted)
Most widely deployed by far.
Introduced in 1986

SMF DS (dispersion shifted) : G.653

For single channel operation at 1550 nm

SMF : G.654
For WDM operation in the 1550 nm region

LEAF and True Wave (Non-Zero

Dispersion Shifted) : G.655
Latest generation fiber developed in mid 90s
For better performance with high-capacity
DWDM Systems

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Central strengthening member

(Fiber-Reinforced-Plastic)
Dummy tube

Cable Construction
Loose tubes

Filler (Cellulose paper/

bonded polyester)

Kevlar yarn

Fibers

Polyethylene sheath
Polyethylene jacket

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Fiber Color Coding

COLOR CODING IS VERY IMPORTANT: See Below,

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BLUE

GREY

YELLOW

ORANGE

WHITE

VIOLET

GREEN

RED

ROSE

BROWN

BLACK

AQUA

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Actual Cable
( NBB)
BLUE

DUMMY

ORANGE
GREEN
BROWN
GREY
WHITE
RED
BLACK
YELLOW
VIOLET
ROSE
AQUA

Structure of 48 FIBER cable used in NBB route G.655

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Manufacturing of the OFC

Optical fiber Manufacturing is a 3 Step Process:

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(I) Pre-form Manufacture

(II) Fiber Drawing

(III) Cabling

Finally, Fiber & Cable Characterization

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Glass Purity
Breakthrough
Fiber Optics Requires Very High Purity Glass

Window Glass

1 inch (~3 cm)

Optical Quality Glass

10 feet (~3 m)

Fiber Optics

9 miles (~14 km)

For Ordinary Glass propagation distance will reduce the

transmitted Light Power by 50% (i.e. 3 dB)

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Essential Fiber
Parameters

Low Attenuation

: To give wider Repeater pacing.

Low Dispersion : To achieve High Data transmission.

High Strength

: To use Fiber in demanding environments.

Low attenuation is achieved by

use of extremely high purity material in the deposition process.

Meticulous control of Process to prevent contamination.

Low Dispersion is achieved by

Accurate Control of Deposition Process.

Precise control of Dopants Flow Rate & Temperature.

High Strength is achieved by

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Use of high quality pure material.

Precise control of Lathe traverse & Deposition Process.

Control of Pulling Process (Fiber Drawing).

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Reasons for Fiber

Joints

Fibers / Cables are not endless.

At both Transmitter and Receiver points, fiber must be

joined to that equipment.

Cable cuts and their subsequent restoration.

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Connecting Fiber Optic

Cables
Two general methods of joining fiber optic cables
Connectors
A disconnectable junction device where removal
and re-connections is needed.
Fusion Splicing
Precision splicing equipment used to fuse fibers
together for non-removable permanent cable
splices.

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Components of Fiber Optic

Connector
Connector Body

Dust Cap

Crimp Sleeve
Ceramic Ferrule

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Strain Relief Boot

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Types of
Connectors
From 70+ designs only few dominate real-world applications:
FC Connector
Used widely for Telecom and Datacom.

SC Connector
Used mainly for Datacom and CATV.

ST Connector
Limited data use. Control and Opto electronics.

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The Connector Ferrule End

face
Glass Core
Ferrule Materials:
Ceramic
Polymer / Plastic
Stainless Steel

Glass Cladding
(125 micron)

Ferrule
(2.5mm)

(Not to scale)

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Physical
Contact

PC Connector ferrule are formed with a

convex end face of 15mm 5mm radius of
curvature to ensure the fiber cores are in
positive contact with each other.
The ferrules are pressed securely together by
a spring in each connector to maintain this
contact.
Ferrule
Fiber

End face

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Face
Radius of
Curvature

Connectors have convex ferrule end face. Proper

physical contact requires convex mating ferrule end
faces.
A convex end face insures accurate contact between
fiber ends and eliminates a glass-to-air gap between
mating fibers. As the radius of curvature is made
smaller, the losses are reduced.
Physical Contact
Super Physical Contact
Ultra Physical Contact
Smaller Radius
PC
SPC
UPC

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Insertion Loss
Determined by measuring how much transmitted light is lost as it passes through
the connector junction.
Expressed in dB.
Note : dB = 10log10 (Pout / Pin)
(example: 3 dB loss is 50 % loss of signal, because 10log10 (0.5) ~ 3)
Typical Insertion loss is 0.2 dB (This represents 5% of signal loss)
Better the polishing, better is the insertion loss.

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Loss
Factors
End Gap

Finish and Dirt

Co-axiality

End Angle

Axial Run-Out

Core Mismatch

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Magnified Connector End

Face
Multimode

Excellent Condition

Chipped Connector

Unclean, Lint or Dirt

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Singlemode

Scratched Core

Cleaning Residue

Scratched Face

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Protrusion &
Undercut
These are the defects in the ferrule polishing process.
Either are caused by failing to match the spherical surfaces
of the ferrule and fiber.
Protrusion:
Result of insufficient
polishing.

Undercut:
Result of excess
polishing.
Fiber
Ferrule

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Return Loss / Back Reflection / Back

Scattering
Measurement of the amount of light reflected back by a change in refractive index
at the connector interface.
Will cause serious data speed limitations and reduced transmission efficiency.
reflected
incident
reflected

incident

PC

APC

The purpose of the APC angled surface is to reflect this stray light away from
the signal source so that it does not interfere.
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Return Loss / Back

Reflection
Return Loss / Back Reflection is expressed in dB (Decibels)
The typical return losses for various ferrule end face types:
PC Connector

- 40 dB

1/10,000 reflected back

SPC Connector

- 50 dB

1/100,000 reflected back

UPC Connector

- 60 dB

1/1,000,000 reflected back

APC Connector

- 70 dB

1/10,000,000 reflected back

We see that APC is the best since the loss is minimum.

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Selection
Criteria
1. Connector Performance
Insertion Loss : 0.1 to 1.0 dB per connection.
Return Loss : -20 dB to -70 dB ( for APC )
Repeatability of connection (specified at per 1000 mating)
2. Strength of Connector
Reliability / Strength of connection ( Rough handling)
Effect of environmental changes on losses.
3. Ease of Termination
4. Cost

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Cleaning FO
Connectors
With Fiber Optics, tolerance to dirt is near Zero.
Dust particles may scratch the ferrule/fiber end face if not cleaned properly, and
remedy will be changing the connector!
Use lint-free pads and Iso-propyl Alcohol for cleaning connectors.
This is effective and inexpensive.
Always keep dust caps on connectors, bulkhead splices, patch panels etc.
A system is only as good as its weakest link. Do not allow the connector to
become the point of failure because of poor attention. Choose the best connector
possible, frequently measure the losses of the connectors to check the
degradation, and clean every connector, every time.

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