Logging tool and

Interpretations
Dr Erfan

Objectives of this chapter

- Quick review of different logging methods
- Identify the fluid contacts (GOC and
OWC) from a reservoir system comprising gas, oil
and water
- Analyze GOC and OWC from a set of log data

1.1.1 SP LOG
The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the
natural or spontaneous potential difference (sometimes
called self-potential) that exists between the borehole
and the surface in the absence of any artificially applied
current.
It is a very simple log that requires only an electrode in
the borehole and a reference electrode at the surface.

 SP arises due to salinity contrast between formation water and

mud filtrate against permeable beds.
No current is sent into the formation. The SP log is recorded by
measuring the potential difference in milli-volts between an
electrode in the borehole and a grounded electrode at the surface.
The change in voltage through the well bore is caused by a build
up of charge on the well bore walls.
Shales and clays will generate one charge and permeable
formations such as sandstone will generate an opposite one. This
build up of charge in turn caused by differences in salt content
and formation water.

SP LOG PRESENTATION
SP is shown in millivolts in Track 1, with negative deflections to the left
and positive ones to the right
In reading the SP log it is best to first define a shale base line. This is the
typical SP level for shales and can be found by comparing the SP log
with the GR log response.
Permeable formations will then have excursions of variable intensity to
the left or right of this line, depending upon the relative salinities of the
formation water and the mud filtrate.
It is useful to know the salinity or resistivity of the mud filtrate from the
log header, if available, as this will indicate whether the formation water
is likely to fall at a higher or lower salinity. For example, if the mud
filtrate is known to be very fresh, the likelihood is that that the formation
water will be saltier, and the SP will likely kick left.

1.1.1 Application of SP log

To delineate porous and permeable reservoir rocks
To determine bed boundaries and bed thickness
To evaluate the formation water resistivity
To estimate the fraction of clay
Correlation of permeable beds

1.1.2 Gamma Ray Log

The standard gamma ray tool contains no source and it
responds only to gamma ray emission from the
downhole environment.
Pottassium (K40), Uranium (U238), Thorium (32) are
the main radioactive materials.
The main types detectors are Geiger Muller detector or
Scintillation Counters with NaI, CsI or BGO crystals
(Photomultiplier,
to
measure
incident
gamma
radiation.).
The detector is unshielded and will thus accept radiation

Application of Gamma Ray

correlation
evaluation of the shale content of a formation
mineral analysis

Log presentation
The format for reporting the spectral gamma ray data is
more complex than for the total gamma ray log because
it contains much more detailed information.
Track 1 is used to record the derived total gamma ray
log (SGR), which is a sum of all the radiation
contributions, as well as the computed gamma ray log
(CGR), which is the sum of the potassium and thorium
responses, leaving out the contribution from uranium.

 Tracks 2 and 3 are used to record the calculated

abundances associated with the radiation from the
individual contributions from each of K40, U238, and
Th232. It should be noted that potassium is reported as
a percentage, while U238 and Th232 are reported in
parts per million (ppm).

Question-1

1.1.3 Resistivity logs

Electrical logs are perhaps the most important tools available to a
petrophysicist. This is because they provide a method for
calculating the water saturation, upon which calculations of
STOOIP are based.
These first measurements were continuous recordings using 2 or
3 electrodes and a direct current.
It was discovered that high quality recordings of apparent
resistivity could be obtained under favourable conditions of small
diameter boreholes, high mud resistivities and shallow invasion in
thick reservoirs. These early tools are called electric logging tools.

1.1.3 Resistivity logs (ctd)

1.1.3 various Resistivity tools (ctd)

The development of electrical tools has henceforward been
intense. There are now tools that can cope with extremely
highly resistive muds (oil-based muds or gas as the borehole
fluid), which rely upon electromagnetic coupling and an
induced alternating current (induction logs).
The modern tool for measuring resistivity in high salinity (low
resistivity) muds is the laterolog, which focuses its current
into a thin sheet to improve vertical resolution and
penetration depth. The laterologs measure resistivity in the
conventional sense, and are usually referred to as resistivity
tools.

 Both the induction logs and the laterologs come in different

types, which are sensitive to different depths of penetration
into the borehole.
Hence resistivity determinations for the invaded, partly
invaded and undisturbed rock zones can be measured.
there is a range of smaller electrical devices (microresistivity
tools), which are designed to measure the resistivity of
mudcake.
There are also Array Logs, which are state of the art tools,
and electrical measurements are used at high resolutions
(small scale) to image the interior of the borehole electrically.

Applications of electici logs

calculate the water saturation of a reservoir formation,
and hence the STOOIP.
The electrical tools also have a number of qualitative
uses, principle of which are (i) indications of lithology,
(ii) facies and electro-facies analysis, (iii) correlation, (iv)
determination of overpressure, (iv) determination of
shale porosity, (v) indications of compaction, and the
investigation of source rocks.

Typical Responses of an
Electrical Tool
Note the lower resistivity in shales, which is due to the
presence of bound water in clays that undergo surface
conduction.
The degree to which the sandstones have higher
resistivities depends upon:
o (i) their porosity,
o (ii) their pore geometries,
o (iii) the resistivity of the formation water,
o (iv) the water, oil and gas saturations (oil and gas are
taken to have infinite resistivity).

Modern resistivity logs

LL3,
LL7
LL8
The Dual Laterolog ( DLL)
Combination of deep (LLD) and LLS (Shallow) latrolaog +
MSFL ( micro resitivity device = Combination of deep
shallow and very shallow

SFL
The spherically focussed log (SFL) has an electrode
arrangement (Fig. 19.8) that ensures the current is
focussed quasi-spherically. It is useful as it is sensitive
only to the resistivity of the invaded zone

Micro resistivity logs

These are devices that often share the same sort of
electrode arrangements as their larger brothers, but
have electrode spacings of a few inches at most.
Therefore, they penetrate the formation to a
very small degree and most often do not penetrate the
mudcake. They are all pad mounted devices that are
pressed against the
borehole wall, and often have the electrodes arranged
coaxially. Combinations of these tools may be run
together on the same sonde.

The Microlog
The microlog (ML) is a rubber pad with three button electrodes
placed in a line with a 1 inch spacing (Fig. 19.9).
A known current is emitted from electrode A, and the potential
differences between electrodes M1 and M2 and between M2 and a
surface electrode are measured.
The two resulting curves are called the 2 normal curve (ML) and
the 1 inverse curve (MIV). Theradius of investigation is smaller
for the second of thesetwo curves, and hence is moreaffected by
mudcake. The difference between the two curves is an indicator of
mudcake, and hence bed boundaries.
The ML tool is so good at this that it is used inmaking sand
counts.

 the microlog is recorded during this insertion to give a

log of mud resistivity Rm with depth and at the BHT.
Figure 19.10 shows an example of the micrologcaliper
(MLC) showing beds clearly on both the microlog and
the caliper traces.

Log Presentation
Resistivity logs are presented in Track 2 or in Tracks 2 and 3 combined on a
log scale.
The units are Wm, and sensitivity scales of 0.2-20 Wm (3 log cycles) all the
way up to 0.2 to 20,000 Wm (6 log cycles) can be used.
The scales are usually narrower if only Track 2 is used (e.g., 0.2-20 Wm). A
combination of deep, medium and shallow logs is usually available in the
same track on the same scales so that a direct comparison can be made.
It is possible to have data from both resistivity-type and induction-type
tools shown together, and in this case it is usual to convert the
conductivity readings from the induction devices to resistivities for display
(although the opposite is also possible (converting resistivities to
conductivities for display) it is rarely seen).

 If the conductivity from induction-type logs is displayed,

the units are millimho per metre (mmho/m) and the
scale is usually 0 2000 mmho/m (note the SI
equivalent of mmho/m is millisiemens per metre,
mS/m).
The ML log is usually plotted in Track 2 over a range of
0 10 Wm for both the micro-normal and micro-inverse
curve. Array logs generally have six or seven curves,
presented in terms of resistivity over an appropriate log
scale. Figure 19.24 shows some typical log
presentations for electrical logs.

Uses of Electrical Logs

Recognition of oil and gas in reservoir rocks is carried
out by:
Oil shows in the mud log.
Noting a difference in the shallow, medium and deep
resistivity tool responses.

 Note that the effect is greater for oil-based drilling muds

than fresh water-based muds and saline water-based
muds in this order.
Some of the more advanced array type tools can now
calculate the invasion profile of resistivity. An example
of this is shown in Fig. 19.19, where the resistivity of the
formation is shown as a function of depth into the
formation in Track 3 as a colour coded map, and the
interpreted flushed and transition zones are given in
Track 1 for the permeable intervals.

Porosity Logs

Log presentation
The interval transit time Dt is recorded on the log in
microseconds per foot (ms/ft.).
If the log is run on its own, the log takes up the whole of
Track 2 and 3, if combined with other logs, it is usually
put in Track 3 (Fig. 16.9). Most formations give transit
times between 40 ms/ft. and 140 ms/ft., so these values
are usually used as the scale.
The log will also show the integrated travel time (TTI).
This value is derived simultaneously with the main
measurement, and is the mean travel time in
milliseconds.

Depth of investigation
- depends on the frequency
Larger wave lenghts hv higher peneteration
Vertical and Bed Resolution
The vertical resolution is equal to the Rx-Rx spacing, and
hence is 2 ft. Beds less than this thickness can be observed,
but will not have the signal fully developed.
There are now some special tools which have an even
better resolutions (e.g., ACL and DAC)

Logging resolution
The typical logging speed for the tool is 5000 ft/hr (1500
m/hr), although it is occasionally run at lower speeds to
increase the vertical resolution.
Logging Problems
- Noise effects
- t extend
- Borhole effects
- etc

Porosity determination

The Raymer-Hunt Equation

Effect of shale
The effect of shales is very variable. This is because is
depends upon the density of the shales, which varies a lot.
Young shales are generally under-compacted and low
density, tending to increase the transit times and hence
give slightly higher sonic derived porosities.
Exactly the opposite is the case for ancient compact
shales with high densities, which give lower transit times
and smaller porosities.
The effect of shales on the porosity from the sonic log is
not as great as the effect of gas.

The Effect of Gas on the Sonic

Derived Porosity
Gas has a low density, and hence decreases the apparent
density of a formation if present.
This causes an increase in the sonic transit time, and hence
a porosity that is overestimated. However, the sonic tool
penetrates to shallow levels, and senses the flushed zone.
Most gas, even in high porosity gas-bearing formations will
be replaced by mud filtrate.
The remaining 15% or so will still have an effect upon the
measure sonic transit time and the sonic porosity because
of the very low density of the gas.

Identification of lithology

Density logs

 The formation density log measures the bulk density of

the formation. Its main use is to derive a value for the
total porosity of the formation.
It s also useful in the detection of gas-bearing
formations and in the recognition of evaporites.
The formation density tools are induced radiation tools.
They bombard the formation with radiation and
measure how much radiation returns to a sensor.

 Thus, the gamma count rate depends upon the electron

number density, which is related to the bulk density of a
substance by Eq. (13.1).
The bulk density of a rock depends upon the solid
minerals of which it is composed, its porosity, and the
density of the fluids filling that porosity.
Hence, the formation density tool is useful in the
determination of porosity, the detection of low density
fluids (gasses) in the pores, and as an aid in lithological
identification.

Log Presentation
The formation density log is recorded in tracks 2 and 3
of the standard API log presentation on a linearscale.
The scale is in g/cm3, and usually spans 1.95 to 2.95
g/cm3 as this is the normal range for rocks
The automatic compensation (correction) for mudcake is
often shown in either track 2 or track 3 on a linear scale.
This curve is included as a quality control curve. If the
correction curve is greater than 0.15 g/cm3, the data
in the main curve will not be very reliable.

 A wireline tension curve is often also included in the

record, because the formation density tool is prone to
getting stuck in holes as a result of its ploughing in sticky
mudcake.
The formation density tool is most often run in combination
with (i) a gamma ray log, for depth matching,
(ii) a caliper log, for borehole quality control, and (iii) a
neutron log, because the interpretation of the formation
density tool together with the results from the neutron log
provide oneof the two best lithological assessment
techniques for a reservoir.

Depth of investigation
The depth of investigation of the tool is very shallow. For
Schlumbergers FDC tool 90% of the response comes
from the first 13 cm (5 inches) from the borehole wall
for a 35% porosity sandstone (which has low density
compared with most reservoir rocks). In higher density
rocks the depth of investigation is even less, and a
value of about 10 cm (4 inches) can be taken as an
average value for reservoir rocks.

 The shallow depth of investigation of the tool makes it

sensitive to borehole quality, and it is therefore
necessary to interpret the formation density log
together with the caliper log to ensure that the
measured values is not an artifact of bad hole quality.

 The shallow depth of investigation also implies that in porous and

permeable formations, where its main use lies, it only measures the
invaded zone. This should be taken into consideration when deciding
on a fluid density (mud filtrate density) to use for porosity
calculations.
The fact that the tool only measures the invaded zone in porous
formations makes the tool little use for distinguishing between
formation oil and formation water.
However, gas may still be detected because (i) the greater difference
in density between gas and oil or water, and (ii) the fact that mud
filtrate invasion into gas bearing zones is never complete, and always
leaves a significant amount of gas behind in the invaded zone.

Logging speed
The typical logging speed for the tool is 1300 ft/hr (400
m/hr), although it is occasionally run at lower speeds to
increase the vertical resolution.
The log quality is not as effected by logging speed as
the natural gamma ray logs because much higher count
rates are obtained with the radioactive source on the
tool.

Vertical resolution
The vertical resolution at the typical logging speed (1300 ft/hr) is
good (about 26 cm, 10 inches), which is defined by the distance
between the two detectors.
The measurement point is taken to be half way between the two
detectors. Beds can be resolved down to about 60 cm (2 ft) with the
density tool reading the true density value of the bed.
Even better resolutions are possible with slower logging speeds.
Partial reaction of the logging tool to very thin beds of anomalously
high or low density is sometimes encountered.
For example, thin (5 10 cm thick) layers of calcareous nodules.
The high vertical resolution means that the log is useful for defining
formation boundaries.

Borehole Quality
The log is run eccentred in the borehole, and therefore is
prone to caving and rough borehole walls where the detectors
or the source may not be pressed against the borehole wall.
In this case the readings will be erroneous due to radiation
leakage along the borehole between the detectors and bad
measurement geometry.
The sensitivity to bad hole quality is exacerbated by the
shallow depth of investigation that the tool has. The formation
density log should, therefore be run with a caliper tool, and
the caliper reading should be used to judge the likely quality
of the formation density log data.

Mud Type
Drilling muds with high density or that absorb gamma rays
efficiently, such as barite filled muds, will effect the detector
readings. However, the effect of these muds is compensated for
automatically by the spine and ribs correction.
Uses of the Formation Density Log
The main use of the formation density log is to determine porosity.
It has numerous other uses, the main ones being the recognition of
gas-bearing zones, and the identification of minerals (particularly
evaporites). The combination of formation density log data with
neutron log data gives one of the best ways of identifying
lithologies in a borehole.

Determination of Porosity

 The fluid densities are usually available from RFT

sampling, but values of 1.0 g/cm3 for fresh water and
1.1 g/cm3 for salt water are often used. Remember that
the tool measures the invaded zone, so the relevant
fluid is the mud filtrate in most circumstances.
If available, the fluid densities should be corrected to
borehole temperature conditions.

 Care must be taken within some lithological intervals

because the composition of the matrix may change.
-For example, the grain density for a clean sandstone is
that of quartz (2.65 g/cm3). However, if
there is a variable amount of biotite present mixed in
with the sand, the bulk density of the rock can rise to
2.84 g/cm3 because biotite has a density of 2.9 g/cm3.
This scenario is encountered in some North Sea
reservoirs.

The Effect of Fluid Density

The porosity may also be in error if the fluid density is misjudged.
The fluid existing in the zone of the rock measured by the formation density tool is
usually mud filtrate.
The density of these fresh and salt waters is approximately 1.0 g/cm3 and 1.1 g/cm3,
respectively. However, these vary with temperature and composition, so accurate
values for the actual reservoir
formation water at the relevant reservoir temperatures should be used wherever
possible.
Such data can be obtained from samples of reservoir fluid from RFT analysis, or from
the analysis of mud filtrate, bearing in mind that the tool measures the invaded zone,
so the relevant fluid density to use in the porosity calculations is most often the mud
filtrate density.
Mud filtrate densities are now corrected automatically for temperature and pressure
in most petrophysical software. However, the correction used to be carried out with
the aid of a nomogram.

The Effect of Gas.

If gas is present in the formation, porosities can be
overestimated. The density of gasses is very low
(approximately 0.0001 g/cm3) compared to aqueous
fluids. If the formation is gasbearing a significant
amount of gas is always left in the invaded zone.
This gas will reduce the mean fluid density of the
invaded zone, and will cause overestimations of the
porosity if a fluid density of 1.0 or 1.1 g/cm3 is used as
shown in Fig. 13.10.

Some more details on interpretations