Optical Fiber

Communications

WDM Concepts and

Components
 Overview Chapter 10
10.1 Overview of WDM
10.2 Passive Optical Couplers
10.3 Isolators and Circulators
10.4 Fiber Grating Filters
10.5 Dielectric Thin-Film Filters
10.6 Phased-Array-Based Devices
10.7 Diffraction Gratings
10.8 Active Optical Components
10.9 Tunable Light Sources

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 Analog Link Elements and Noise
Contributors
Signal impairments in the optical source include
harmonic distortions, intermodulation products, relative
intensity noise (RIN) in the laser, and laser clipping.
The fiber requirements include a flat amplitude and
group-delay response to send the signal free of linear
distortions.
Optical receiver impairments can include quantum or
shot noise, APD gain noise, and thermal noise.

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 Overview of WDM
A characteristic of WDM is that the discrete
wavelengths form an orthogonal set of carriers that
can be separated, routed, and switched without
interfering with each other.
WDM networks require a variety of passive and
active devices to combine, distribute, isolate, and
amplify optical power at different wavelengths.

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 WDM Spectral Bands
Many independent narrowband regions in the O-
through L-bands can be used simultaneously.
These regions are designated either in terms of
spectral width or optical bandwidth.
The optical bandwidth related to a particular
spectral width is found by differentiating c =
; for << 2

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 WDM Standards
ITU-T Recommendation G.694.1 specifies DWDM operation in the
S-, C-, and L-bands for frequency spacing of 100 to 12.5 GHz (or,
equivalently, 0.8 to 0.1 nm at 1550 nm).
The number NM is used by ITU-T to designate a specific 19N.M-
THz C-band 100-GHz channel, e.g., the frequency 194.3 THz is
ITU channel 43.

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 10.2 Passive Optical
Couplers
Passive devices operate completely in the optical
domain to split and combine light streams.
They include N N couplers (with N 2), power
splitters, power taps, and star couplers.
They can be fabricated either from optical fibers
or by means of planar optical waveguides using
material such as LiNbO3, InP, silica, silicon
oxynitride, or various polymers.

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 The 2 2 Fiber Coupler
P0 is the input power, P1 is the throughout power, and P2 is the power
coupled into the second fiber.
P3 and P4 are extremely low signal levels (-50 to -70 dB below the input
level) resulting from backward reflections and scattering in the device

The evanescent tail

from one fiber core
couples into
another closely
spaced fiber core

Optical power
coupling

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 Performance of an
Optical Coupler

3-dB coupler: P1 = P2 = 0.5 P0

Tap coupler: P2 = 0.005 P0 (- 23 dB)

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Example Coupler
Performance

10
 Star Couplers
In general, an N M coupler has N inputs
and M outputs

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 N N Star Coupler
Can construct star couplers by cascading 3-dB couplers
The number of 3-dB couplers needed to construct an N
N star is

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 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Multiplexers
By splitting the input beam and introducing a phase shift in
one of the paths, the recombined signals will interfere
constructively at one output and destructively at the other.
In the central region, when the signals in the two arms
come from the same light source, the outputs from these
two guides have a phase difference

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 Cascaded MZIs
Using basic 2 2 MZIs, any size N N
multiplexer (with N = 2n) can be
constructed.
Each module i has a different Li in order
to have all wavelengths exit at port C

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 Optical Isolators
Optical isolators allow light to pass in only one direction.
This prevents scattered or reflected light from
traveling in the reverse direction.
E.g., can keep backward-traveling light from entering
a laser diode and possibly causing instabilities in the
optical output.

Polarization-
independent isolator
made of three
miniature optical
components

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 Optical Circulators
An optical circulator is a
nonreciprocal multiport
passive device that
directs light sequentially
from port to port in only
one direction.
In the 3port example, an
input on port 1 is sent out
on port 2, an input on
port 2 is sent out on port
3, and an input on port 3
is sent out on port 1.

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Isolator and Circulator
Parameters

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 Fiber Bragg Grating
(FBG)
Exampleformation:
Twoultravioletbeamswill
createapermanent
interferencepatternina
GeO2dopedsilicafiberto
formaperiodicindex
variationalongtheaxis.

OperatingPrinciple:Incidentopticalwaveat 0willbereflectedback
ifthefollowinggratingconditionismet: 0=2neff,whereneffis
averageweightingofn1andn2and = grating period (periodicity of
index variation)

Incident 0
n2
Reflected 0 n1

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 Fiber Bragg Grating
Application
Demultiplexing (wavelength dropping) process:
Consider 4 wavelengths entering a circulator at port 1.
All wavelengths exit from port 2.
The fiber Bragg grating is designed to reflect 2 and
pass all other wavelengths.
After reflection, 2 enters port 2 and comes out of port
3.

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 Multiplexing of Four
Wavelengths
One needs to cascade N-1 FBGs and N-1 circulators for
combining or separating N wavelengths.
Example for multiplexing four wavelengths using three FBGs
and three circulators (labeled C2, C3, and C4). The fiber
grating filters labeled
FBG2, FBG3, and FBG4 are constructed to reflect wavelengths
2, 3, and 4, respectively, and to pass all others.

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 Etalon Theory
A dielectric thin-film filter (TFF) is used as an optical bandpass flter.
It allows a very narrow wavelength band to pass straight through it and reflects
all other wavelengths.
The basis of these devices is a reflective mirror surfaces called a Fabry-Perot
interferometer or an etalon.
The transmission T of an ideal etalon in which there is no light absorption by the
mirrors is an Airy function

The periodicity of the device is called the free spectral range or FSR

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 Dielectric Thin-Film Filter

Filtertransmission(dB)
Dielectricreflectorstacks
0
Steep 3cavities
Throughput 10 rolloff
Input: 1 N 2cavities
k
20 1cavity
Reflection:
1 k-1 , 30
Glass
k+1 N substrate
Dielectriccavitylayers 40
0.996 0.998 1 1.002 1.004
Relativewavelength c/

AthinfilmdielectricresonantcavityfilterisaFabryPerotinterferometer
Mirrorssurroundingcavityaremultiplereflectivedielectricthinfilmlayers
Cavitylengthdeterminesaparticularwavelengthtopass&reflectsallothers
Flatpassbandswithsteeprolloffs
Lowinsertionloss:0.5dBatpeakand<3.5dBatcenterfrequency10GHz
Highopticalreturnloss(>45dB)
Thinfilmfilterswitha50GHzpassbandarecommerciallyavailable

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 Arrayed Waveguide
Grating
At(4):=2 n L/ eff c

3 4 neff=effectiveindex
c=centerwavelength
Lens Lens
region 2 5 region
At(6): FSR= c2/(Lneff)


FSR-A FSR-B
1 6



Theinputwaveguides(1)enteralensregion(2)
(2)dividesthepoweramongthedifferentwaveguidesinthegratingarray(3)
EachgratingwaveguidehasapreciselengthdifferenceLwithitsneighbors
Lightineachwaveguideemergeswithdifferentphasedelaysat(4)
Thesecondlensregion(5)refocusesthelightfromallarraywaveguidesontotheoutput
waveguidearray(6)[ FSR=freespectralrange=AWGperiodicity]
Eachwavelengthisfocusedintoadifferentoutputwaveguideinregion(6)

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 FSR Example
The FSR specifies the spectral width that will be
separated across the output waveguides of an AWG

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 Diffraction-Grating
Couplers
Diffraction gratings spatially separate s in a beam
Reflection gratings are ruled or etched fine parallel
lines on a reflective surface
Transmission gratings have periodic index variations
Each wavelength will reflect or refract at a different
angle

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 Active Optical
Components
Active components require some type of external energy
either to perform their functions or to be used over a wider
operating range than a passive device, thereby offering
greater application flexibility
Many active optical components use micro-electrical-
mechanical systems or MEMS technology
A simple example of a MEMS actuation method.

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Examples of Active
Devices
A tunable optical filter can be
varied to select a specific
narrow spectral band within a
much wider optical band.

A dynamic gain equalizer (DGE)

equalizes the gain profile of an
erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA)

An optical add/drop multiplexer

(OADM) inserts (adds) or extracts
(drops) wavelengths at a designated
point in an optical network.

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