CytologyandBasicHistology

Contents
1.Introduction
2.Cytology
Introduction
Componentsofthecell
Plasmamembrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

3.Histology
Introduction
Epthelialtissue
Connectivetissue
Musculartissue
Nervoustissue By:anatomyteam
 1.CytologyandBasicHistology
Majordisciplinesofanatomy

Dealsthosestructuresthatcantbeeseenwithour
neckedeye

By:anatomyteam
 2. Cytology
Studyofcells
Cells:
thesmallestlivingthing
Structuralandfunctionalunitsoflife
Thebasicfunctionalactivitiesorpropertiesofthecells:
Metabolism(absorption,synthesis,respirationandexcretion)
Growthandregeneration.
Irritability(excitability).
Movement.
Reproduction
Aging
Death.

By: anatomy team

 2. Cytology
Notallcellsarealike.Evencellswithinthesameorganismshow
enormousdiversityinsize,shape,andinternalorganization,
functionandorganellesitcontains.
Humanbeingcells:
EukaryoticMembraneboundtruenucleus
About100trilions
200kindsofcells

By:anatomyteam
 Componentsofcell
Humancellshavethreemainparts:Plasmamembrane(PM),Cytoplasm
andNucleus.

By:anatomyteam
 1.PlasmaMembrane
Itistheoutercoveringofcellandseparateextracellularenvironmentfrom
intracellularenvironment.

By:anatomyteam
 FunctionsofPM
1.Providesaprotectivebarrieragainstsubstancesandforces
outsidethecell.
2.Someofthemembraneproteinsactasreceptors;thatis,they
havetheabilitytobindtospecificmoleculesarrivingfrom
outsidethecell.Afterbindingtothereceptor,themoleculecan
induceachangeinthecellularactivity.Membranereceptors
actaspartofthebodyscellularcommunicationsystem.
3.Theplasmamembranecontrolswhichsubstancescanenterand
leavethecell.Themembraneisaselectivelypermeablebarrier
thatallowssomesubstancestopassbetweentheintracellular
andextracellularfluidswhilepreventingothersfromdoingso.

By:anatomyteam
 Structureoftheplasmamembrane

Composedofdoublelayer,orbilayeroflipidmoleculesandprotein
moleculesdispersedwithinit.

By:anatomyteam
 Lipidbilayer
Itcovers50%ofplasmalemaandmadeupofthreetypesoflipidmolecules:
phospholipids(lipidsthatcontainphosphorus),cholesterol,andglycolipids(lipids
attachedtocarbohydrates;glycocarbohydrate)

By:anatomyteam
 Phospholipid
Mostabundantinthelipidbilayer.Itismadeupofglycerolhydrophilic/polar/andtwo
fattyacids/hydrophobictail/nonepolar/.

Phospholipidisimportanttoformthelipidbilayer

By:anatomyteam
 Glycolipid
Attachedontheouterlipidbilayer.
Itcontainpolarcarbohydrateresiduewhichextendsfromouterleafletinto
extracellularspace,formsglycocalyx.
Glycolipidisimportantforcelltocellinteractionandimmunesystemresponse
andrecognisingbacterialinvasion.recognition

By:anatomyteam
 Cholestrol
Cholesteroliswaxysteroidwhichislocateonbothsides.
Cholestrolmakesthemembranemorerigidandincreaseitsimpermeabilityto
waterandwatersolublemoleculesandalsocontributeformechanicalstability

By:anatomyteam
 ProteinscomponentofPM
Twotypes;integralproteinandperipheralprotein

By:anatomyteam
 ProteinscomponentofPM
Integral/Intrinsic/endoproteins/transmembrane proteins :
Representingaclassofproteinsthataredirectlyincorporatedwithinthelipid
bilayer.
Theseareproteinsthattraversethelipidbilayerandactasporesforthepassageof
certainsubstance.

By:anatomyteam
 ProteinscomponentofPM
Peripheral(extrinsic/exoprotiens)membraneproteins
Theseareproteinslooselyassociatedwiththesurfaceofthemembrane.
Peripheralproteinsbondtothephospholipidpolargroupsorintegralproteinsof
themembranevianoncovalentinteractions.
Theyusuallyfunctionaspartofthecytoskeletonoraspartofanintracellular
secondmessengersystem

By:anatomyteam
 Functionofplasmaprotein
Transportmolecules
AttachcellwithextracellularmatrixECM
Posessspesficenzymeactivities
Attachcellmembranewithcytoskeleton
Createporesthroughwhichwaterandwatersoluble
chemicalscanpass
Actascarriersinactivetransport
Formreceptorsitesforhormones
Areimportantincellrecognition

By:anatomyteam
 2.Cytoplasm

Waterytransparentcolloidalmediumbetweenthenucleusandplasma
membrane.
Itisasiteofvariouscellularactivitiesthataremediatedbyitsdifferentparts.
Mainlyconsistsofthreemajorelements:cytosol,organelles,andinclusions.

By:anatomyteam
 Cytosol
Jellylikefluidspacebetweentheorganellesandinclusions.
Itconsistsofwater,ions,andmanyenzymes.
Someoftheseenzymesstartthebreakdownofnutrients
(sugars,aminoacids,andlipids)thataretherawmaterialsand
energysourceforcellactivities.
Inmanycelltypes,thecytosolmakesupabouthalfthevolume
ofthecytoplasm
Italsocontainsthesubstratesandproductsofdifferent
enzymaticreactions.
Additionallytherearesmallmoleculesandionsthatincrease
theefficiencyofcertainmetabolicreactionsandcontributeto
theuniqueintracellularenvironment.

By:anatomyteam
 CytoplasmicOrganelles
Organellesarepermanentcomponentsofthe
cytoplasmofacellwhicharepartlycapableof
multiplication.

Theyareareresponsibleforthemetabolic,
syntheticandforenergyrequiring&energy
generatingfunctionsofthecell.

By:anatomyteam
 CytoplasmicOrganelles
Typically,thecytoplasmcontainsaboutninetypesoforganelles;
mitochondria,ribosomes,roughandsmoothendoplasmicreticulum,golgi
apparatus,lysosomes,peroxisomes,centrosomes,cytoskeleton,andcentrioles

By:anatomyteam
 CytoplasmicOrganelles

Theorganellesaredividedintomembraneboundedandnonmembrane
bounded.
A.Membranous
Endoplasmicreticulum

Golgiapparatus
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
B.Nonmembranous
Ribosomes
Centrosomes
centriole
cytoskeleton

By:anatomyteam
 Endoplasmicreticulum
Itisanetworkofdoublemembranestube.
Itssizedependsonthefunctionalstateofthecellsanditshows
changesinshapeandsizefromtheearlydevelopmenton.
Assistinthesynthesisandtransportofcellularproducts.
TwodistincttypesofER:RERandSER.

By:anatomyteam
 Rough(granular)RER:
Hasribosomesattachedtoitsouterlimitingmembraneandthe
membraneisstudded/coveredbytheribosomes.
Itsmembraneiscontinuouswiththeouterlayerofthenuclear
membranewhichisconsideredaspartoftheRERandalsostuddedby
ribosomes,butitrarelyreachesthecellmembrane.
Duetothehighribonucleoproteincontentoftheribosomesattachedto
it,itappearsbasophilicwhenstainedwithbasicdyes(staining
solutions).
ItcontainsribophorinsIandII(integralmembraneproteinsthatmay
provideattachmentsitesforthelargesubsunitsofribosomes)
ImportantforproteinsynthesiswhichtakesplaceintheRibosomes
attachedtoit.
Itisprominentincellsspecializedforproteinsecretionsuchas
Pancreaticacinarcells(digestiveenzymes).
Fibroblasts(collagen).
Plasmacells(Immunoglobulin).
Neurons. By:anatomyteam
 Smooth(agranular)SER:
RibosomesarenotattachedtoitanddoesnocontainribophorinsIandII.
CellsrichinSERhaveanacidophilicstainingproperty.
MembranesoftheSERarisefromtheRERandareoftenincontinuitywithone
another.
TheSERisinvolvedintheproductionofnonproteinsubstanceslikelipids(fatsoluble
triglycerides,fattyacidsandsteroids).
Itisalsoinvolvedinthebiotransformationofsubstances.
Itisimportantincellssynthesizingsteroidhormones,e.g.cellsofadrenalcortexand
otherendocrineglands.
Instriatedmusclesitservesasastorehouseforca++,i.e.itisconcernedwiththe
releaseandrecaptureofca++inthecycleofcontractionandrelaxationofamuscle.
Intheliveritisinvolvedinthecholesterolandlipidmetabolismandusedforthe
oxidation,conjugationandmethylationprocessesemployedbythelivertoneutralizeor
detoxifycertainhormonesandnoxioussubstancelikealcoholandinsecticides
(hydroxylation).

By: anatomy team

 GeneralfunctionoftheER
Segregationofnewlysynthesizedproteinsdestinedforexportorintracellular
utilization.

Proteolysisofthesignalsequenceofnewlysynthesizedproteinstoalimitedextent.

Initialglycosylationofglycoproteins.

Posttranslationalmodificationofaminoacids.

Assemblyofmultichainproteins.

Lipidbiosynthesis.

Chemicalmodificationofendogenousandexogenouscompounds.

By:anatomyteam
 Differences between SER and RER

Elements RER SER

Ribosomes + -
Membranes Often cisterna often tubular
Ribophorins I & II + -

By: anatomy team

 Golgi Apparatus(GA)
Itconsistsof3to20cisternae(turnedcavities),flattenedmembranoussacs
Slightlycurved
Compressednearthecenter
Dialatedattheedge
Modifies,sorts,packages,andtransportscellularproduct

By: anatomy team

 Golgi Apparatus
Regions
Cisface:
closesttotheRER.
growth(forming)poleandtheentryface
Medialface:
b/ncisandtransface
Transface
b/nmedialandtransGolgiface
TransGolginetwork
Awayfromtransface
Fromthetransfacemuchlargersecretoryortransportvesiclescalled
condensingvacuoles,secretoryvesiclesorgranulesdetachandmigrate
tothecellmembrane,wheretheirmembranebecomefusedand
incorporatedintothecellmembranereleasingtheircontent.

By: anatomy team

 Mitochondria

Longroadshapeddoublemembraneorganelle
Outer=smoothandinnerfolded,cristae
UsedforATPsynthesis
Somecontainmaternallyinheritedgeneticmaterial(DNA)

By:anatomyteam
 Mitochondria
Thespacebetweentheseprocesses(cristae,tubuli,orvesicles)is
filledwithafinegranularmitochondrialmatrixinwhichenzymesof
the:
citricacidcycle,
fattyacidcatabolismand
proteinsynthesisarefound(enzymesofoxidative
phosphorylationandelectrontransportsystem).
Themitochondrialmatrixcontainsastrandofdeoxyribonucleicacid
(DNA)arrangedasacircleinamanneranalogoustothe
chromosomesofbacteria.
Thematrixalsocontainsribosomeswhichhavesimilarstructurewith
bacteriaribosome

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
 Mitochondria
Theinnermembraneofmitochondriaisrichinenzymeproteinsthat
areimportantinoxidativeenergyproduction.Attachedbyastalkto
thismembranetherearesmallparticles(elementaryparticles)in
whichATPissynthesized.
Theseparticlesarealsoknownasinnermembranespheres.

FortheycontainsomeDNAtheycansynthesizesomeoftheir
proteins.
ThereplicationoftheirDNAisindependentofthenuclearDNA.
Theycontainalsoallthethreeformsofribonucleicacid(RNA)
(ribosomalrRNA,messengermRNA,andtransfertRNA)

By:anatomyteam
 Mitochondria
Therespiratoryandphosphorylatingenzymearefoundattachedtothe
membrane,whilethoseoftheKrebscycle,proteinmetabolismand
lipidmetabolismarefoundinthematrix.

So,thesehighlyefficientorganellestransformthechemicalenergyof
themetabolitespresentincytoplasmintoenergythatiseasily
accessibletothecell.

About50%ofthisenergyisstoredasadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)
moleculesandtheremaining50%isdissipatedasheatusedto
maintainbodytemperature.

By:anatomyteam
 Lysosome

Lysosomes(Lyse=destroy,some=body)
Lysosomesareabout0.20.5minsizeandthereforenotresolved
byalightmicroscope.
They are vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases)
and constitute the intracellular digestive system, that digests aged
cellularstructuresandforeignbodies,
o i.e.theyaresitesofintracellulardigestionandturnoverof
cellularcomponents.
Thelysosomalmembranepreventsthedigestionofcellular
structuresbyenzymes.

By:anatomyteam
 Lysosome
Lysosomesareresponsiblefortheresorptionoftissuesthatareno
moreneededbytheorganism,e.g.regressionofmammaryglands.
Thelysosomalenzymesaresynthesizedbytheribosomesand
transportedtotheGolgiapparatusfromtheER.
IntheGolgiapparatustheyareenclosedbyamembranetoform
vesicles.
Thesevesiclescontainingenzymesdetachingfromthetransface,
calledprimarylysosomes,arereleasedintothecytoplasm.

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
 Peroxisomesormicrobodies
Theyareabout0.51.2msphericalvesiclessurroundedbya
singlemembranethatenclosesauniformgranularmatrix.
Thematrixisseparatedfromthemembranebyanarrow
translucentspace.
Theymayvaryinshapeandsizedependingonthetypeofspecies
andcellkind.
Peroxisomesareformedbybuddingfromotherorganellesmainly
fromtheSER.
Mostcellsexceptthoseoftheliverandthekidneyscontainsmall
peroxisomeswithahomogenouscontentcalled
microperoxisomes,butintheliverandkidneytheyarerelatively
large.

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
 Peroxisomesormicrobodies
Theycontainoxidativeenzymesthatproducehydrogenperoxide(H2O2)that
participatesin:
certainmetabolicreactionsand
usedbysomephagocyticcellstokillengulfedmicroorganisms.
ForH2O2istoxictothecellitselfperoxisomesalsocontainotherenzymeslike
catalasethatconvertsH2O2intowaterandO2.
ThereforeprotectthecellfromtheirreversiblecytotoxiceffectofH2O2.
Additionallyperoxisomescontainenzymesforlipidmetabolism.
Theyaccomplishtheoxidationoflongchainfattyacids(18carbonsand
longer)incontrarytomitochondria.
Theyalsotakepartintheformationofbileacids,gluconeogenesisandpurine
metabolism.

By:anatomyteam
 B.Nonmembranousorganells

Ribosomes:
Smallorganelles(12nmwideand25nmlong)
ComposedofproteinsandribosomalRNA(rRNA).
Freeorattachedribosome
Usedforproteinssynthesis

By:anatomyteam
 Ribosome
Inanimalcellstheyaremadeupoftwosubunitsthatcanbedifferentiatedbytheir
sedimentationcoefficient.

Largesubunits(60s(Svedberg)particles):

Responsiblefor
o thereleaseofthenewproteinand,

o Proteinattachmenttotheendoplasmicreticulumviaanintermediatedocking
protein,and

o directingtheproteinthroughitsmembraneintothecisternalcavity.

Smallsubunits(40sparticles):

isthesiteofattachmentandtranslationofmRNA

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
 Ribosome
BothofthemcontainrRNAcomplexedbyproteinasribonucleoprotein.

TheRNAsofbothsubunitsaresynthesizedwithinthenucleoliofthenucleus.

Theproteinpartissynthesizedinthecytoplasmbyotherribosomesandentersthe
nucleustobeboundtorRNA.

Thesubunitsthenleavethenucleusthroughthenuclearporestoenterthe
cytoplasmandparticipateinproteinsynthesis.

By:anatomyteam
 CentrosomesandCentrioles

Thecentrosomeisanearthenucleus.

Thecentrosomeisasphericalregionofcytoplasmlocatednearthe
nucleusandcontainstwocentriolestogetherknownasaDiplosome.

Thecentrosomeactsastheorganizingcentreforthegrowthof
microtubulesofthecytoskeletonwhichradiatesoutwardsinastar
likearrangement

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
By: anatomy team
 Centrioles
Thecentriolesexistasapairofcylindricalrodsorientedatright
anglestooneanother.Eachmemberofthepair

Thecentriolesarebarrelshapedstructureswithwallsofshort
microtubules

Inelectronmicroscopiceachcentriolesiscylindricalinform,closed
atoneend,andconsistingofninetripletsofparallelmicrotubules(9+
0axonemepattern)

ThecentriolesselfduplicateintheSphaseofthecellcycle

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
By: anatomy team
 Cytoskeleton
Meshworkofprotienfillament,madefromprotiensubunits
Functionasmusclesandbonesofcell,maintainingcellshape,
stabilizingcellattachments,facilitatingendocytosisand
exocytosis,andpromotingcellmotility.
Linkedoneanother,totheplasmamembraneandcellular
organelles
Threetypesofcytoskeletone:
Microfilaments7nm,actinsubunit
Intermediatefilaments10nm,fibroussubunit
Microtubules25nm,tubulinsubunits

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
Cytoskeleton

By:anatomyteam
 Microfilaments
Thethinnestcytoskeleton(7m)

Madefromtwostrandsofprotien
fillament

Monomersofthefilamentactinprotein

Interactwithmyosingeneratecontractile
forceswithinthecell

Abundanttotheperipheryofthecell

Anchoredtotheplasmamembrane

By:anatomyteam
Microfilamentsareinvolvedin:
ConnectingcellswithECM

Locomotion(amoeboidmovement).

Formingcontractilering

Celldivision.

Cytokenesis.

Endocytosisandexocytosis.

Cytoplasmicstreamingandtransport.

Secretionofcellularmaterial.

Providingpartofthecytoskeleton .
By:anatomyteam
 Intermediatefilaments
B/nmicrofillamentsandmicrotubules(810m).
Madefromvarieties(hetrogenous)ofprotienfilaments
includekeratin,desmin,vimentin,laminin,nurofilament
Functionprovidemechanicalstrengthtocellandanchor
nucleusinplace

By:anatomyteam
 Microtubules
Largestdiameter,25m
Hollowtubes,madefromlargesphericalproteinsubunitscalledtubulins(globular)
Mainconstituentsofciliaandflagella
Innervecellprocessestheyareknownasneurotubules
Functionmaintaincellshape,transport,promotemovementofcilia,flagellaand
chromosomes

By: anatomy team

 Microtubules

Therearetwotypesofmicrotubules:

Labile (unstable) microtubules: formed or degraded on demands, that is they

aretemporarycomponentsofacell.E.g.tubuleinamitoticspindle.

Stablemicrotubules:constantlyfoundinthecells.

By:anatomyteam
By: anatomy team
By: anatomy team
 CytoplasmicInclusions
Accumulationsofmetabolicallyinactivematerialswhichcanbeproductsof
intracellularmetabolismorengulfedsubstancesfromthecellsenvironment.

Notboundedbymembrane(usually)

Thesecanbereservedandstoredsubstanceslikeglycogen,lipids,proteinsor
pigmentsfoundinspecificcelltypesorinassociationwithaparticularstageof
thefunctionalactivityofacell.

Organellesarepermanentcomponentsofthecytoplasmofacellwhile
inclusionslikeproteins,carbohydrates,lipids,pigmentsetc.aretemporary

By:anatomyteam
 CytoplasmicInclusions
Glycogen:
Highmolecularweightpolysaccharide(storedformofglucose).
Itcanbefoundintheformofsmalldropletsorfreedepositsinthe
cytoplasmicmatrixoflivercells(hepatocytes),musclecellsand
epithelialcellsoftheoralmucousmembrane

Lipids(neutralfatandlipoids):
Appearasdropletsorgranulesinthecytoplasm.
Abnormallyincreaseinnumberduringhypoxiaorintoxicationby
phosphorusoralcohol(e.g.fattyinfiltrationoftheliverinalcoholics).
Lipoidsubstancesarenormallyfoundinthecellsoftheadrenalcortex
wheretheyformtheprecursorsofsteroidhormones.
Theyarestoredbyfatcellsofadiposetissue(adipocytes)andthefat
storingcellsoftheliver(lipocytes).

By:anatomyteam
 CytoplasmicInclusions
Proteins:
Appearasgranules,dropletsorcrystals.
Intheyolkofeggcellstheyarefoundwithlipidsintheformofsmallgranules .

Pigments:
Coloredsubstancesstoredinacell.
Theycanbeclassifiedaseitherexogenousorendogenous.
Exogenouspigmentsarethosetakenupfromtheenvironmentintothebodyby
someroute.e.g.coaldustcausinganthracosisandsiliconedustcausingsilicosis
intherespiratorytract.
Endogenouspigmentsarethosepigmentsproducedbythecellsthemselves.
E.g.haematogenicproductslikehaemosiderinandFerritin,
nonhaematogenicpigmentlikemelaninandlipofuscin.
By:anatomyteam
 3.Nucleus
Usuallysphericalandlocatedatthecenterofthecell
Commonlycellscontainonenucleus.
Butsomecellshavemorethanonenucleus,
e.g.livercells,cellsofthetransitionalepithelium,Osteoclasts,andmultinucleated
Giantcells,skeletalmusclecells
Somecellslacknucleus,e.g.MatureRBC,platelets,lensfibers.
Suchcellsareunabletosynthesizeproteinorareunabletodivideandareextremely
restrictedintheirmetabolicactivities.
Thecontentofthenucleuswhichissurroundedbythenuclearmembraneiscalled
Karyoplasm.
ThekaryoplasmcontainsacolloidalsolutioncalledKaryolymphwhichiscomposed
ofchromosomesandoneormorenucleoli.
Thenucleusisthemostprominentstructureinacell.
Maincontrolcenterofcells
Documentationsiteofthecell.
Therepository(storageplace)ofgenome.
Sourceofinformationalmacromolecules

By: anatomy team

 Parts of nucleus
Themainpartsofthenucleusarethenuclearenvelope,nucleoplasm,andnucleolus

By: anatomy team

 Thenuclearenvelope
Thenucleusisenclosedandseparatedfromthecytoplasmbyanuclearenvelope.

Inanelectronmicroscope,itisacomplexstructureconsistingoftwoparallelunit
membranesseparatedbyanarrowspace(4070nm)calledperinuclearcisterna
(perinuclearspace).

Theoutermembranecontainsribosomesattachedtoitscytoplasmicsurfaceandis
continuouswiththeroughendoplasmicreticulum.

Closelyassociatedwiththeinternalmembrane,thereisafibrousproteinstructure
calledthefibrouslamina.

Thefibrouslaminaiscomposedofthreemainpolypeptides,calledlamins(A,B
andC),thatformpartofthenuclearmatrix.

Thelaminsareintermediatefilamentproteinswhichprovidesaconnectinglink
betweenthemembraneandthenuclearheterochromatin.

By:anatomyteam
 Thenuclearenvelope

Communicationortransportationofsubstancesbetweenthenucleusand
thecytoplasmtakesplacethroughcirculargapsinthenuclearenvelope,
measuring50100nmindiametercallednuclearpores.

Theseporesarefoundatmanypointswheretheinnerandouterlayersof
thenuclearenveloparefused.

Eventhoughtheyarepotentialroutesforthepassageofsubstances,they
arebelievedtobehighlyselective.

Filamentsfromthefibrouslaminaassociatedwiththeinnermembrane
extendintotheporesandformtheannulusoftheporecomplex.
By:anatomyteam
 Thenuclearenvelope
Eachporeisfoundtobeclosedbyadelicateseptumthinnerthantheusualunit
membranecalleddiaphragm.

Itcontrolsthefreepassageofevensmallmoleculeslikeionsbyactingasa
barrierforthenucleoplasmictransportationofsubstances.

Theporeallowstheentrancetothenucleusbyproteinssuchashistonesand
generegulatoryproteins,whicharesynthesizedinthecytoplasmbutwhich
functioninthenucleus.

Theyalsopermittheexitofmoleculessynthesizedinthenucleus(e.g.
ribosomalsubunits,transferRNAandmessengerRNA)tothecytoplasm.

By:anatomyteam
Nucleoplasm
b/n nuclear envelope and nucleolus
Contents:
chromatin
intranuclear lamin- protein filaments
different enzymes

By: anatomy team

 Nucleolus
Maybeonetomany
Composedofnuclear
matrixandnuclearparticles
NuclearMatrix
Lamina
chromatin
Nuclearparticles
Chromosome

By: anatomy team

 Chromosome
MadeofDNAmolecule
DNAfromfournucleotidesequence
Geneticinformationencoded in the sequence

By: anatomy team

 Chromatin

DNA plus histone protien

By: anatomy team