ELEXM 614

Ch 6: Antennae

Dr. Rashid A. Saeed

MSc. Communication Engineering
Semester I 2012

Sudan University of Science and Technology

2012@Dr.Rashid A. Saeed
 Content
Introduction Horn Antennas
Reciprocity Theorem for The Parabolic Reflector
Antennas The Offset Feed
Coordinate System Double-Reflector
The Radiated Fields Antennas
Power Flux Density Shaped Reflector Systems
The Isotropic Radiator and Arrays
Antenna Gain Planar Antennas
Radiation Pattern Planar Arrays
Beam Solid Angle and Reflectarrays
Directivity Array Switching
Effective Aperture
The Half-Wave Dipole
Aperture Antennas

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 0
eVP900 0
ex cos cos B 1
e y cos sin B
1
ez sin eHP00 , B 00 0
N 0
1
1
eHP00 , B 450 1
2
0

y
B

x 2012@Dr.Rashid A. Saeed 3
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Explain how to generate DP
using the Fig.?

5
 Introduction

PS: Power Supplied

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The reciprocity theorem
if a current I is induced in an
antenna B, operated in the receive
mode, by an emf applied at the
terminals of antenna A operated
in the transmit mode,
then the same emf applied to
the terminals of B will induce the
same current at the terminals of
A.
The antenna impedance should be
same for both modes of operation.

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 Antenna Coordination

The spherical coordinate system.

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The Radiated Fields
There are three main components to
the radiated electromagnetic fields
surrounding an antenna: two near-
field regions and a far-field region.

one component being inversely

related to distance squared, and
the other to the distance cubed.

D is the largest dimension of

the antenna
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 Power Flux Density

Watt/m2

ZW the wave impedance in ohm

E in volts per meter

Is also called EIRP.

Effective isotropic radiated
power.
The word isotropic
means, equally in all
directions

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 Effective Aperture

the received power:

Aeff, the effective aperture

The effective aperture is smaller than the physical aperture

by a factor known as the illumination efficiency

illumination efficiency can range between about 0.5 and 0.8 for circular
reflectors antennae, and between 0.35 0.8 for horn antennae.

For satellite applications, a high illumination efficiency is desirable.

11
 Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern shows how the gain of an antenna

varies with direction i.e. the gain will vary with and .

The radiation pattern is the gain normalized to its

maximum value.

Gain at and
Maximum Gain

M maximum radiated power, maximum

is usually achieved by antenna directivity

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Beam Solid Angle and
Directivity

Maximum 2R,

Maximum 4R2,

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 the average radiation intensity (which is also the isotropic
value)

For narrow-beam antennas such as used in many satellite communications

systems

HPBW is the half-power beamwidth in the E & H plane

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 Antennae Types

Dipole Antenna
Aperture antennae
Parabolic Antennae
Horn Antenna
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 The Half-Wave Dipole

Some radiation occurs in all directions except

along the dipole axis itself,
Near omni-directional property
When a satellite is launched, command and control signals
highly directional antennas are not required, and a half-
wave dipole, is used to maintain communications.

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show that the -3dB beamwidth the radiation pattern

obtained from this pattern is 78.
Calculate the gain (G)?
 Aperture Antennas

Examples are horn and reflector antennas.

Main lobe
Side lobe
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 The side-lobes can result in interference to
adjacent channels, and maximum
allowable levels should be specified.
The nulls in the radiation pattern can be
useful in some situations

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 Horn Antennas

widely used as primary feeds for reflector type antennas

both in transmitting and receiving modes.
Two types:
Conical horn antennas
Pyramidal horn antennas

19
 Conical horn antennas

The horn may be fed from a rectangular

waveguide, but this requires a
rectangular-to-circular transition at the
junction
Feeding from circular feeding is direct and is
the preferred method, The curved components can be
resolved to H and V components.
horizontal components of the
aperture field give rise to cross-
polarized waves in the far-field
region.

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 The corrugated horn antenna

The smooth conical horn disadvantages:

the antenna pattern is not symmetry,
the cross polarization
lower efficient main beam with high side
lobes.
these leads the rise of the corrugated horn
antenna

21
 Pyramidal horn antennas

The pyramidal horn can be operated in

horizontally and vertically polarized
modes simultaneously,
giving rise to dual-linear polarization.

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 The Parabolic Reflector

Parabolic reflectors are widely used in

satellite communications systems to
enhance the gain of antennas.
The circular aperture configuration is
referred to as a paraboloidal reflector.

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AS: focal length f PS: focal distance
Derivation in App. B

The space attenuation function (SAF) is the

ratio of the power reaching point P to that
vertex focal point or focus reaching point A,

24
The Parabola theory

The path length

25
ratio is that of aperture
diameter to focal length

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 For satellite applications, a high illumination
efficiency is desirable.

a large f/D ratio leads to more uniform

illumination

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 The gain and beamwidths of
the paraboloidal antenna
The physical area of the aperture plane is

the primary horn and its supports present a

partial blockage to the reflected wave

The energy scattered by the blockage is lost from the main

The half-power beamwidth
lobe (reduce the efficiency 10%), and it can create
additional side-lobes. One solution is to use an offset feed
the beamwidth between the first nulls
(BWFN) are
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Calculating HPBW
Touchdown Point

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 Linear (vertical)
polarization, however
both horizontal and
vertical components are
present,
The resulting radiation
consists of co-polarized
and cross-polarized
fields.
The symmetry of the
arrangement means that
the cross-polarized
component is zero in
the principal planes

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 The Offset Feed

Offset feed illuminates only the upper

portion of the reflector.
that no blockage occurs
Become standard on many satellites

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European Olympus satellite
The main disadvantages
of the offset feed are that
a stronger mechanical
support is required to
maintain the reflector
shape
Due to asymmetry, the
cross-polarization with a
linear polarized feed is
worse

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 Double-Reflector Antennas

For less blockage

Two types:
Cassegrain antenna
Gregorian antenna
This to improve f/D
Hence uniform
illumination
The larger f/D ratio
also results in lower
cross-polarization

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 Cassegrain antenna

The subreflector has two focal points,

one of which is made to coincide with that of the
main reflector and
the other with the phase center of the feed horn
The equivalent focal length

eh is the eccentricity of the hyperboloid and

f is the focal length of the main reflector.
The eccentricity of the hyperboloid is always
greater than unity and typically ranges from virtual focal poin
about 1.4 to 3.
35
 Gregorian antenna

requiring longer sub-reflector supports

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 Beam Shaping

Reflector Shaping
Array Antennae
Planar Antennae

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 Shaped Reflector Systems

The process, referred to as

reflector shaping, employs
computer-aided design
methods.
dimples and/or ripples are
created on the surface.
The depth of these is no more
than a wavelength, which
makes them rather difficult to
see, especially at the Ka band.
This reinforce radiation in
some directions and reduce it
in others 38
 As an example of the improvements obtained,
to producing a CONUS beam using the
conventional approach requires 56 feed horns,
and the feed weighs 84 pounds and has a 1-dB
loss.
With a shaped reflector, a single-feed horn is
used, and it weighs 14 pounds and has 0.3-dB
loss

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 Shaped reflectors have been used to
compensate for rainfall attenuation,
particular application in direct broadcast
satellite (DBS) systems
In this case, the reflector design is based on a
map similar to this (rainfall intensity)
the reflector is shaped to redistribute the
radiated power to match the attenuation.

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 Arrays

Beam shaping can be achieved by using an array of basic

elements.
provides mutual reinforcement in certain directions and
cancellation in others
most arrays used in satellite communications are two-
dimensional horn arrays,
Two factors contribute to this:
the difference in distance from each element in the far field and
the difference in the current feed to each element.

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 the phase lead of element n relative to n-1
resulting from the difference in distance

The total phase lead of element

n

each element is fed by currents of equal magnitude

but differing in phase progressively by some angle

42
 1st element 2nd element

N is the total number of elements in the array

array factor (AF):

The AF has a maximum value of N when

43
 it is possible to choose the current phase to
make the AF show a peak in some desired
direction 0.

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Called end-fire
array, where the
main beam is
directed along
the positive axis
of the array.

45
 90 2
120 60
1.5

150 1 30

0.5

|AF( )|
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

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You can shape the beam as you wanted. You
have two parameters to do that and s
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 http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/aurinko1/luku4-
2011.pdf

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 Planar Antennae

A microstrip antenna
A variety of construction
techniques are in use, both for
the antenna pattern itself, and
the feed arrangement,

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 A patch antenna and its
coordinate system.
Approximate expressions for the radiation pattern

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Radiation patterns for a patch
antenna

90
1
120 60
0.8

0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

210 g(, =900) 330

g(, =00)

240 300
270

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 circular patches (disc patches)

The basic microstrip patch is a linear

polarized antenna, but various feed Triplate slot antenna.
arrangements are in use to convert it to a
circularly polarized antenna

Circular patch a coplanar waveguide

antenna

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 Planar Arrays

Antennae etched on one side of a printed circuit board

(PCB).
phase shifters to provide the tracking (beam scanning) is
a key feature of planar arrays.
The most economical method of beam forming and
scanning is mechanical

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 A transmission line phase
shifter
Phase shift given by where

PIN diodes, FETs and micro-

electro-mechanical (MEM)
switches

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 A MESFET switched line phase
shifter
monolithic microwave integrated circuit
(MMIC).

2012@Dr.Rashid A. Saeed 58
 it is also possible to alter the phase shift by
altering the propagation coefficient

where dielectric of relative permittivity

A phase change can be altered by changing

the frequency f
Using additional oscillator
changing the relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
changed by apply an electric field for ferroelectric material
59
Characteristics of Ferroelectric

2012@Dr.Rashid A. Saeed 60
 Array Switching

Switching of the phasing elements in the

antenna arrays is usually carried out
digitally.

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 Problems

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