Chapter 1: Introduction

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Management System (DBMS)
 DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
 Collection of interrelated data
 Set of programs to access the data
 An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
 Database Applications:
 Banking: transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 University Database Example
 Application program examples
 Add new students, instructors, and courses
 Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
 Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA)
and generate transcripts
 In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of
file systems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Purpose of Database Systems
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency
 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation — multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
 Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
 Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent access needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
– Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating
it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
 Security problems
 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
 Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Levels of Abstraction
 Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
 Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
 View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View of Data

An architecture for a database system

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Instances and Schemas
 Similar to types and variables in programming languages
 Schema – the logical structure of the database
 Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema: database design at the physical level
 Logical schema: database design at the logical level
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be
well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Models
 A collection of tools for describing
 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints

 Relational model
 Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
 Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
 Semistructured data model (XML)
 Other older models:
 Network model
 Hierarchical model

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Model
 Relational model (Chapter 2)
Columns
 Example of tabular data in the relational model

Rows

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 A Sample Relational Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the
appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
 Two classes of languages
 Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get
those data
 Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is
required without specifying how to get those data
 SQL is the most widely used query language

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
 DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 Database schema
 Integrity constraints
 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
 Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
– e.g. dept_name value in any instructor tuple must appear in
department relation
 Authorization

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL
 SQL: widely used non-procedural language
 Example: Find the name of the instructor with ID 22222
select name
from instructor
where instructor.ID = ‘22222’
 select instructor.ID, department.dept name
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept name= department.dept name and
department.budget > 95000

 Application programs generally access databases through one of

 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
 Chapters 3, 4 and 5

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design

requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have
and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation
schemas?

 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design?
 Is there any problem with this design?

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Approaches
 Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
 Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
 Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
– Described by a set of attributes
 Relationship: an association among several entities
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The Entity-Relationship Model
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable
from other objects
 Described by a set of attributes
 Relationship: an association among several entities
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

What happened to dept_name of instructor and student?

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Object-Relational Data Models
 Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
 Object Relational Data Models
 Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
 Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
 Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
 Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 XML: Extensible Markup Language
 Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
 Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
 The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
 XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
 A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database System Internals

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Storage Management
 Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
 Interaction with the file manager
 Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
 Issues:
 Storage access
 File organization
 Indexing and hashing

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing

1. Parsing and translation

2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing (Cont.)
 Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
 Equivalent expressions
 Different algorithms for each operation
 Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can
be enormous
 Need to estimate the cost of operations
 Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the
database must maintain
 Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction Management
 What if the system fails?
 What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
 Transaction-management component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
 Centralized
 Client-server
 Parallel (multi-processor)
 Distributed

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Users and Administrators

Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 History of Database Systems
 1950s and early 1960s:
 Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
 Tapes provided only sequential access
 Punched cards for input
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
 Hard disks allowed direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
 IBM Research begins System R prototype
 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
 High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 History (cont.)
 1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
 SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Object-oriented database systems
 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
 Emergence of Web commerce
 Early 2000s:
 XML and XQuery standards
 Automated database administration
 Later 2000s:
 Giant data storage systems
 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 1

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 1.02

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 1.04

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 1.06

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan