Diffraction of light:

The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners and the

encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow of the opaque obstacles
is called diffraction.

X
X

S S

Slit Y
Y
Obstacle

Screen

Diffraction at a slit Diffraction at an obstacle Screen

X & Y Region of diffraction
Diffraction of light at a single slit:
1) At an angle of diffraction = 0:

A = 0
0
1
2
3
4
d 5
6 O Bright
7
8
9
10
11

12

B D
Plane
Wavefront Slit
Screen
The wavelets from the single wavefront reach the centre O on
the screen in same phase and hence interfere constructively
to give Central or Primary Maximum (Bright fringe).
2) At an angle of diffraction = 1:
The slit is imagined to be divided into 2 equal halves.

1
A
0

1
2 P1 Dark
3
4
5 1
6 O Bright

7 /2
8
9
10
11
N
1
12

Plane B
Wavefront Slit
The wavelets from the single wavefront diffract at an angle 1 such Screen
that BN is and reach the point P1. The pairs (0,6), (1,7), (2,8), (3,9),
(4,10), (5,11) and (6,12) interfere destructively with path difference
/2 and give First Secondary Minimum (Dark fringe).
3) At an angle of diffraction = 2:
The slit is imagined to be divided into 4 equal parts.
P2 Dark

P1
A 2
0
1
2 P1 Dark
3 /2
4
5 2
6 O Bright
7
8
9 3/2
10 N
11
2
12

B 2
Plane
Wavefront Slit
Screen
The wavelets from the single wavefront diffract at an angle 2 such that
BN is 2 and reach the point P2. The pairs (0,3), (1,4), (2,5), (3,6), (4,7),
(5,8), (6,9), (7,10), (8,11) and (9,12) interfere destructively with path
difference /2 and give Second Secondary Minimum (Dark fringe).
4) At an angle of diffraction = 1:
The slit is imagined to be divided into 3 equal parts. P2

1 P1 Bright
A
0
1
2 P1 Dark
3
4

5 /2 1
6 O Bright
7
8
9
10
11
N 1
12

Plane B
3/2
Wavefront Slit
The wavelets from the single wavefront diffract at an angle 1 such that Screen
BN is 3/2 and reach the point P1. The pairs (0,8), (1,9), (2,10), (3,11) and
(4,12) interfere constructively with path difference and (0,4), (1,5), (2,6),
and (8,12) interfere destructively with path difference /2. However
due to a few wavelets interfering constructively First Secondary
Maximum (Bright fringe) is formed.
Diffraction at various angles:

PP22 2

PP11 1
AAA = 101 2

00

11

22
PPP111 1

33 /2

44

55 /2 2 1

66 1
OO = 0
77 /2
I

88


99 3/2
10
10
11

11 N N
N 21 1
12

12

Plane BBB 2
Plane 3/2
Wavefront Slit
Wavefront Slit
Screen
Screen
Central Maximum is the brightest fringe.
Diffraction is not visible after a few order of diffraction.
Width of Central Maximum:

1
A
0

1
2 P1 Dark
3
4 y1
d 5 1
6 D O Bright

7 /2
8
9
10
11
N
1
12

Plane B
Wavefront Slit
Screen
 CENTRAL MAXIMUM

The secondary waves from points

equidistant from the centre of the slit travel
the same distance in reaching the point O.
Hence the path difference between them is
zero. These secondary waves reinforce
each other resulting in the maximum
intensity at the point O. This is the central
maximum.
 FORMATION OF SECONDARY MINIMA

The first minimum occurs when the path difference

between the extreme wavelets is .
Imagine that the slit is divided into two equal parts,
so the path difference between the extreme points of
each of the slits will be /2. On reaching the point P,
these will interfere destructively and they cancel each
others effect.
Similarly for all the path differences 2 , 3 . n ,
the point will be minimum.
 FORMATION OF SECONDARY MAXIMA

The first minimum occurs when the path difference between

the extreme wavelets is 3/2.
Imagine that the slit is divided into threeo equal parts, so the
path difference between the extreme points of each of the
slits will be /2. On reaching the point P, light from two of the
slits will interfere destructively and they cancel each others
effect, but wavelets from the third slit will remain on the
screen to produce the first secondary maximum.
Similarly for all the path differences 5/2, 7/2 (2n+1)/2
the point will be maximum.
Theory:
The path difference the extreme wavelets is BN.
If is the angle of diffraction and d is the slit width, then BN = d sin
To establish the condition for secondary minima, the slit is divided into 2, 4,
6, equal parts such that corresponding wavelets from successive regions
interfere with path difference of /2.
Or for nth secondary minimum, the slit can be divided into 2n equal parts.
For 1, d sin 1 = Since n is very small,
For 2, d sin 2 = 2 d n = n
For n, d sin n = n n = n / d (n = 1, 2, 3, )

To establish the condition for secondary maxima, the slit is divided into 3, 5,
7, equal parts such that corresponding wavelets from alternate regions
interfere with path difference of .
Or for nth secondary maximum, the slit can be divided into (2n + 1) equal
parts.
For 1, d sin 1 = 3/2 Since n is very small,
For 2, d sin 2 = 5/2 d n = (2n + 1) / 2
For n, d sin n = (2n + 1)/2 n = (2n + 1) / 2d (n = 1, 2, 3, )
 WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMUM

y1 = D / d
Since the Central Maximum is
spread on either side of O, the
width is

tan 1 = y1 / D
or 1 = y1 / D (since 1 is very small)
d sin 1 = 0 = 2D / d
or 1 = / d (since 1 is very small)
 Difference between Interference and Diffraction:
Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is due to the 1. Diffraction is due to the
superposition of two different superposition of secondary
wave trains coming from coherent wavelets from the different parts
sources. of the same wavefront.
2. Fringe width is generally constant. 2. Fringes are of varying width.
3. All the maxima have the same 3. The maxima are of varying
intensity. intensities.
4. There is a good contrast between 4. There is a poor contrast between
the maxima and minima. the maxima and minima.
 RESOLVING POWER

Resolving power of an optical instrument is the power or ability of the

instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two close objects. i.e.;
it is the ability of the instrument to resolve or to see as separate, the
images of two close objects.

According to Rayleigh, two point objects A and B will be just resolved,

when central maximum of diffraction pattern of B lies on first secondary
minimum of diffraction pattern of A

The minimum distance between two objects which can just be seen as
separate by optical instrument is called the LIMIT OF RESOLUTION
 RESOLVING POWER OF A MICROSCOPE

The resolving power of a microscope is the ability of the microscope to show

separate, the images of two point objects lying close to each other.

The limit of resolution of the microscope is measured by the minimum distance d

between two point objects, whose images on the microscope are seen separate.
 RESOLVING POWER OF A TELESCOPE

The resolving power of a telescope is the ability of the telescope to show separate,
the images of two distant objects lying close to each other.

The limit of resolution of the telescope is measured by the angle (d) subtended at its
objective, by those two distant objects whose images are seen through the telescope.
 POLARISATION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon due to which the vibrations of light are restricted in a
particular plane is called polarisation of light.

NOTE: Sound waves cannot be polarised as they are not transverse waves
Polarisation of Transverse Mechanical Waves:

Narrow Slit

Transverse
disturbance
(up and down) Narrow Slit

90

Transverse
disturbance Narrow Slit
(up and down)
Polarisation of Light Waves:

Wave

S
- Parallel to the plane

- Perpendicular to the plane

Natural Light Representation of Natural Light

In natural light, millions of transverse vibrations occur in all the

directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. But for
convenience, we can assume the rectangular components of the
vibrations with one component lying on the plane of the diagram and
the other perpendicular to the plane of the diagram.
Light waves are electromagnetic waves with electric and magnetic fields
oscillating at right angles to each other and also to the direction of
propagation of wave. Therefore, the light waves can be polarised.

Optic Axis

Unpolarised Plane Plane
light Polarised Polarised
light light
Polariser Analyser
Tourmaline Tourmaline
Crystal Crystal

90

No light
Plane
Unpolarised
Polarised
light
light
 90

Unpolarised Plane
light Polarised
Polariser Analyser light

Plane of Vibration Plane of Polarisation

When unpolarised light is incident on the polariser, the vibrations parallel to

the crystallographic axis are transmitted and those perpendicular to the axis
are absorbed. Therefore the transmitted light is plane (linearly) polarised.
The plane which contains the crystallographic axis and vibrations
transmitted from the polariser is called plane of vibration.

The plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane

of polarisation.
Malus Law:
When a beam of plane polarised light is incident on an analyser, the
intensity I of light transmitted from the analyser varies directly as the
square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of transmission of
analyser and polariser.
a
I cos
2
a sin a cos
If a be the amplitude of the electric
P
vector transmitted by the polariser, A
then only the component a cos
will be transmitted by the analyser.
Intensity of transmitted light from
the analyser is
Case I : When = 0 or 180, I = I0
I = k (a cos )2
or I = k a2 cos2 Case II : When = 90, I=0
I = I0 cos2 Case III: When unpolarised light is incident
on the analyser the intensity of the
(where I0 = k a2 is the transmitted light is one-half of the intensity of
intensity of light transmitted incident light. (Since average value of cos2
from the polariser) is )
Polarisation by Reflection and Brewsters Law:
The incident light wave is made of
parallel vibrations ( components)
on the plane of incidence and
perpendicular vibrations ( iP a
components : perpendicular to plane
of incidence). 90 n
At a particular angle iP, the parallel r
components completely refracted b
whereas the perpendicular components
partially get refracted and partially get
reflected.
i.e. the reflected components are all in
perpendicular plane of vibration and iP + r = 90 or r = 90 - iP
hence plane polarised.
sin iP
The intensity of transmitted light anb =
sin r
through the medium is greater than that
of plane polarised (reflected) light. sin iP
a nb =
sin 90 - iP

anb = tan iP
Polarisation by scttering:
When a beam of white light is
passed through a medium
containing bigger particles, then
the beam get scattered. When the
scattered light is seen in a
direction perpendicular to the
direction of incidence, it is found
plane pokarised. This
phenomenon is called
polarisation by scattering.
EXPLANATION:
When a beam of unpolarised light
is incident along the z-axis on a
scatterer, all possible directions
of vibrations of electric vector in
unpolarised light are confined in
the XY plane.
Hence the light scattered in a
direction perpendicular to the
incident light is always plane
polarised.
Polaroids:
H Polaroid is prepared by taking a sheet of polyvinyl alcohol (long chain
polymer molecules) and subjecting to a large strain. The molecules are
oriented parallel to the strain and the material becomes doubly refracting.
When strained with iodine, the material behaves like a dichroic crystal.

K Polaroid is prepared by heating a stretched polyvinyl alcohol film in the

presence of HCl (an active dehydrating catalyst). When the film becomes
slightly darkened, it behaves like a strong dichroic crystal.

Uses of Polaroids:
1) Polaroid Sun Glasses
2) Polaroid Filters
3) For Laboratory Purpose
4) In Head-light of Automobiles
5) In Three Dimensional Motion Picutres
6) In Window Panes
7) In Wind Shield in Automobiles
End of Wave Optics